1. Chapter 2 Culture and Organizational Behavior
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2. Learning Objectives
Understand what culture is and the levels of culture.
Explain how culture is learned.
Understand the major frameworks for explaining the cultures of different societies.
Discuss the importance of culture for understanding and managing organizational behavior.
Discuss implications of the debate over cultural convergence versus divergence.
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3. What is Culture? A way of life of a group of people
That complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society
Everything that people have, think, and do as members of society
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4. Sathe’s Levels of Culture
Manifest
culture
Manifest
culture
Expressed values
Expressed values
Water
line
Basic
assumptions
Basic assumptions
Iceberg
Onion

5. How is Culture Learned? Enculturation Primary Socialization
Non-intentional process that includes all of the learning available as the result of what is in an environment to be learned
Primary Socialization
more intentional learning process that occurs in the family and local community
Subcultures
Develop because a group has an ethnic background, language, or religion that is different from the majority population
Secondary Socialization
Occurs after primary socialization and usually equips people with the knowledge, skills, and behavior to enact adult roles successfully
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6. Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck’s Variations in Values Orientations
Framework to describe how different societies cope with various issues or problems
Includes 6 Values Orientations
A culture may prefer one or more variations of a values orientation
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7. Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck’s Variations in Values Orientations
Orientation Variations
Relation to Nature
Time Orientation
Basic Human Nature
Activity Orientation
Relationships
Among People
Space Orientation
Subjugation
Past
Evil
Being
Individualistic
Private
Harmony
Present
Neutral/Mixed
Containing/Controlling
Group
Mixed
Mastery
Future
Good
Doing
Hierarchical
Public
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8. Relation to Nature Subjugation Harmony Mastery
Accept nature; don’t try to change it
Harmony
Coexist with nature
Mastery
Change nature through technology when necessary or desirable
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9. Time Orientation Past Present Future Emphasizes tradition
Focuses on short-term
Future
Emphasizes long-term
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10. Basic Human Nature Good Evil Mixed-Neutral People trust each other
Lack of trust
Mixed-Neutral
Generally trusting but need to be cautious and protect self
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11. Activity Orientation Doing Being Containing/Controlling
Emphasis on action, achievement, learning
Being
Emphasis on enjoying life and working for the moment
Containing/Controlling
Emphasis on rationality and logic
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12. Relationships among People
Individualistic
People define themselves through personal characteristics and achievement
Group-oriented
People relate to and take responsibility for members of the family, network, or community
Hierarchical
People value group relationships but also within the society emphasize relative ranking of groups
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13. Space Orientation Public Private Mixed Space belongs to all
People consider it important to have their own space
Mixed
There is a combination of public and private space
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14. Hofstede’s Dimensions of Cultural Values
Focuses specifically on work-related values
Developed in 1980 with data over 116,000 employees in 72 countries
Average scores for each country used to develop national profiles to explain differences in work behaviors
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15. Individualism/Collectivism
Individualistic
People have concern for themselves and their immediate families
Collectivistic
People value the overall good of the group
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16. Power Distance
The extent to which less powerful members of organizations accept that power is unequally distributed
Small
Less comfortable with power differences
Large
Differences among people with different ranks are acceptable
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17. Uncertainty Avoidance
Indicates preferred amount of structure
Strong
People prefer more structure
Weak
People prefer unstructured situations
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18. Masculinity/Femininity
Extent to which people prefer traditional male or female values
Masculine
“Tough” values dominant - success, money, status, competition
Feminine
“Tender” values dominant - personal relationships, care for others, quality of life, service
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19. The Chinese Value Survey
Reaction to the Hofstede study
Developed in Chinese based on traditional Chinese values
Translated and administered to students in 23 countries
4 dimensions, 3 match Hofstede (PD, I/C, and M/F) plus Confucian Work Dynamism
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20. Long-term/Short-term Orientation
High Confucian work dynamism/Long-term oriented
Concern with future, value thrift and persistence
Low Confucian work dynamism/Short-term oriented
Oriented toward past and present, respect for tradition but here and now is most important
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21. Schwartz's Value Survey
Focuses on universal aspects of individual value content and structure
Based on issues that confront all societies
Collected data over ten years from over 60,000 people in 63 countries
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22. Embeddedness Versus Autonomy
People view others as inherently part of collectives
Autonomy
Individuals seen as autonomous, bounded entities who find meaning in their own uniqueness
Intellectual autonomy - people follow their own ideas and value curiosity, creativity, and open-mindedness
Affective autonomy - individuals independently pursue positive experiences that make them feel good
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23. Hierarchy Versus Egalitarianism
Use a social system with clearly defined roles to make sure people behave responsibly
Egalitarianism
Think of each other as moral equals sharing basic human interests
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24. Mastery Versus Harmony
Encourages people to master, change, and exploit the natural and social environment for personal or group goals
Harmony
Emphasizes understanding and fitting in with the environment, rather than trying to change it
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25. Trompenaars’ Dimensions of Culture
Dimensions represent how societies develop approaches to managing problems and difficult situations
Over a 14 year period, data collected from over 46,000 managers representing more than 40 national cultures
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26. Universalism Versus Particularism
Judgment of what is good or true applies to every situation
Particularist
Circumstances and relationships influence judgments of what is good or true
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27. Individualism Versus Communitarianism
Individualist
Focus on self, personal freedom, and competitiveness
Communitarian
Emphasizes group membership, social responsibility, harmonious relationships, and cooperation
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28. Specificity Versus Diffusion
Level of particularity or wholeness used by the culture to define different constructs
Specific
Objective, break things down into small parts
Large public spaces and smaller private spaces
Diffuse
Focus on conceptual wholeness and relationships of all kinds are valued
Small public spaces and larger private spaces
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29. Achieved Status Versus Ascribed Status
Achievement
Emphasize attainment of position and influence through a demonstration of expertise
Ascription
Believe people are born into influence, and who you are, your potential, and your connections are all important
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30. Inner Direction Versus Outer Direction
Inner-directed
See virtue as being inside the individual and believe that conscience and convictions are internal
Outer-directed
Believe virtue is outside the person and located in nature and relationships
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31. Sequential Time Versus Synchronous Time
Do one thing at a time, make appointments and arrive on time, and generally stick to schedules.
Synchronic
Do several activities simultaneously, the time for appointments is approximate, and interpersonal relationships are more important than schedules
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32. Hall’s High-Context and Low-Context Cultural Framework
High-Context Low-Context
China Austria
Egypt Canada
France Denmark
Italy England
Japan Finland
Lebanon Germany
Saudi Arabia Norway
Spain Switzerland
Syria United States
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33. Ronen and Shenkar’s Country Clusters
INSERT FIGURE 2-4
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34. The World Values Survey
Study of sociocultural and political change
Collected data from more than 65 societies
Four waves of data collection: 1981, , , and
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35. Traditional Versus Secular-Rational Orientations Toward Authority
Values reflect preindustrial society and the centrality of the family
Secular-Rational
Opposite preferences to traditional
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36. Survival Versus Self-Expression Values
Put priority on economic and physical security over self-expression and quality of life
Self-expression
Opposite preferences to survival
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37. Gannon’s Cultural Metaphors
Identifies an important phenomenon, activity, or institution that members of a culture see as important as a metaphor for that culture
Helps outsiders to describe and understand the essential features of a society
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38. Brown’s Cultural Universals
375 cultural universals compose the "Universal People"
Contends that significant elements of human behavior are the same throughout societies
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39. Do the Frameworks Explain Differences?
Represent average behavior within a culture
Countries classified similarly may still be very different
Reliability may vary
Range of differences on any dimension exists within the population of a single country
Can explain differences in individual people’s behavior within the same country
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40. Convergence or Divergence?
Closer communication and trade links
Worldwide markets and products
Different cultural interpretations
Need to maintain cultural identity
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41. Implications for Managers
Understanding culture important even in home country
Organization’s stakeholders could be from another culture
Need to look for underlying cultural meanings
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