1. Stylistics and stylometry

2. 2 What is “style”? Term not much loved by linguists –Too vague –Has connotations in neighbouring fields (“style” = good style, ie a value judgment) Many books/articles make reference to etymology of the word (Lat. stilus = ‘pen’), so it follows that style is mainly about written language Various definitions, some very close to things already seen (especally “register”) Two main aspects widely supposed: –style is choice –style is described by reference to something else

3. 3 Style as choice For any intended meaning there are a range of alternative ways of expressing that meaning Different choices express nuances –of meaning –of other things (style?) eg buy vs purchase Example: –Visitors are respectfully informed that the coin required for the meter is 50p; no other coin is acceptable –50p pieces only –Propositional meaning is the same; difference in expression conveys something else (register etc)

4. 4 Style as choice Style is a choice, but often the “choice” is somewhat predetermined ie a choice between appropriate and inappropriate style So maybe “style” is just another word for register?

5. 5 Style and the norm Some writers define style as –“individual characteristics of a text” –“total sum of deviations from a norm” But what is the “norm”? –Is there some form of the language that is neutral as regards style/register? –Note also that the norm shifts: eg Bible AV was written in the vernacular of its time Literary stylistics focuses on the exceptional

6. 6 Even if there is no norm, we can describe style comparatively –Stylistics mainly involves comparing and contrasting texts –and associating linguistic variance with contextual explanation Some authors see style as being what is added to the text

7. 7 Stylistic analysis Gulf between literary vs linguistic stylistics –Lit crit focuses on effect on the reader, intended or otherwise, so largely intuitive and subjective –Linguistic stylistics looking for characterisations of style (including literary style) in terms of linguistic phenomena at the various levels of linguistic description

8. 8 Stylistic analysis Inventory of linguistic devices and their effect –usually in a contrastive way: –in contrast with other writers in a similar genre –in contrast with other genres Linguistic devices described in terms of the usual linguistic levels of description: phonology, morphology, lexis, grammar, etc. Effects can be directly expressive, or indirectly, by association –example: onomatopoeia vs alliteration as a phonological device

9. 9 Examples of stylistic devices Phonostylistics –onomatopoeia, alliteration –use of regional accents Lexical stylistics –archaisms, neologisms, slogans –recurring imagery through metaphor (eg many water metaphors in Shakespeare) –juxtaposition of close synonyms to imply subtle differences in meaning, or to reinforce (eg let or hindrance) Syntax stylistics –tenses, word order, use of pronouns –complexity, esp. juxtaposition of eg long and short sentence –deliberate violation of normal syntactic conventions

10. 10 Historical stylistics Taking a diachronic view of language Study how linguistic devices lose or gain stylistic significance –eg novel metaphor  idiom  cliché Must bear in mind contemporary setting –eg falconry metaphor in Shakespeare understood differently –My Fair Lady: audience assumptions about Cockney characters

11. 11 Stylistic analysis Crystal & Davy (1969) Investigating English Style Informally identify stylistic features felt to be significant Devise a method of analysis which facilitates comparison between usages Identify the stylistic function of the features so identified

12. 12 Types of features “Invariable” features due to the individual or the time – usually of little interest Discourse features –medium (= Halliday’s mode), what features distinguish written language from spoken language –participation: eg monologue vs dialogue Province (= field) lexis and syntax Status (= tenor) features relating to relative social standing of writer/speaker and reader/listener Modality (= text type) eg message delivered as a letter, postcard, text message, email, etc Singularity: deliberate occasional idiosyncracies

13. 13 Methods Look at features on the various linguistic levels Example: email (compared to letter) –No address at top –Greetings (Dear X, Yours sincerely) optional –Where used, may be different: strict rules about Yours sincerely/truly etc; emails show more variety –Spelling, orthography (caps and punc), and grammar more flexible –Convention of including original in response (cut&paste vs indirect reference) Since two modes coexist, there is some cross-over –some emails (more formal) have features of a letter, in the extreme being seen as just an alternative delivery mode –some letters more like emails, eg if correspondence is in electronic form, you can cut&paste quotes from previous correspondence

14. 14 Stylometry Measurement of style based on numerical analysis Always been part of stylistics (especially in authorship studies), but more popular now due to practicality (computers) Involves counting things And knowing how to show the significance of what has been counted

15. 15 What to count Simple things may characterise different styles –average sentence length –average word length –type:token ratio (vocabulary richness) number of types = number of different words number of tokens = total number of words –vocabulary growth (homogeneity of text) number of new types in 1st, 2nd, …, nth 1000 words in rich varied text, number will climb steadily Especially when used comparatively

16. 16 What to count More complex analyses can give a more interesting picture –specific syntactic structures –degree of modification in NPs –types of verbs (eg verbs of persuasion, speech verbs, action verbs, descriptive verbs) –distribution of pronouns (1st/2nd/3rd person) –etc … (anything you can think of) Quite sophisticated mathematical techniques can give an overall picture –eg factor analysis: identifies from a (big) range of variables which ones best identify/characterize differences

17. 17 Coming soon … After Easter we will look at … Case study of stylistic analysis Some examples of stylometry –by Biber to classify of genre –and various uses in the field of … Authorship attribution –Literary studies –Forensic