2. Unit Overview – pages 366-367 How is music grouped in a store? What is the advantage to doing this?

3. Unit Overview – pages 366-367 Change Through Time Classification Organizing Life’s Diversity

4. Section 17.1 Summary – pages 443-449 Biologists want to better understand organisms so they organize them. One tool that they use to do this is classification Classification is the grouping of objects or information based on similarities. How Classification Began

5. Section 17.1 Summary – pages 443-449 Biologists who study taxonomy are called taxonomists. How Classification Began Taxonomy is the branch of biology that groups and names organisms based on studies of their different characteristics.

6. Section 17.1 Summary – pages 443-449 He classified all the organisms he knew into two groups: plants and animals. Aristotle’s system The Greek philosopher Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) developed the first widely accepted system of biological classification.

7. Section 17.1 Summary – pages 443-449 He grouped animals according to various characteristics, including their habitat and physical differences. Aristotle’s system He subdivided plants into three groups, herbs, shrubs, and trees, depending on the size and structure of a plant.

8. Section 17.1 Summary – pages 443-449 As time passed, more organisms were discovered and some did not fit easily into Aristotle’s groups, but many centuries passed before Aristotle’s system was replaced. Aristotle’s system According to his system, birds, bats, and flying insects are classified together even though they have little in common besides the ability to fly.

9. Section 17.1 Summary – pages 443-449 Linnaeus’s system was based on physical and structural similarities of organisms. Linnaeus’s system of binomial nomenclature In the late eighteenth century, a Swedish botanist, Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778), developed a method of grouping organisms that is still used by scientists today. As a result, the groupings revealed the relationships of the organisms.

10. Section 17.1 Summary – pages 443-449 This way of organizing organisms is the basis of modern classification systems. Linnaeus’s system of binomial nomenclature Eventually, some biologists proposed that structural similarities reflect the evolutionary relationships of species.

11. Section 17.1 Summary – pages 443-449 In this system, the first word identifies the genus of the organism. Linnaeus’s system of binomial nomenclature Binomial nomenclature is a modern classification system using a two-word naming system that Linnaeus developed to identify species. A genus is a group of similar species.

12. Section 17.1 Summary – pages 443-449 Thus, the scientific name for each species, referred to as the species name, is a combination of the genus name and specific epithet. Linnaeus’s system of binomial nomenclature A specific epithet is the second word, which sometimes describes a characteristic of the organism Homo sapiens

13. Section 17.1 Summary – pages 443-449 Scientific names should be italicized in print and underlined when handwritten. The first letter of the genus name is uppercase, but the first letter of the specific epithet is lowercase. Passer domesticus Scientific and common names

14. Section 17.1 Summary – pages 443-449 Scientific and common names Taxonomists are required to use Latin because: 1.the language is no longer used in conversation and, therefore, does not change 2.a common name can be misleading. 3.it is confusing when a species has more than one common name.

15. Section 17.1 Summary – pages 443-449 Grouping organisms on the basis of their evolutionary relationships makes it easier to understand biological diversity. Modern Classification Expanding on Linnaeus’s work, today’s taxonomists try to identify the underlying evolutionary relationships of organisms and use the information gathered as a basis for classification.

16. Section 17.1 Summary – pages 443-449 For example, biologists study the relationship between birds and dinosaurs within the framework of classification. Taxonomists group similar organisms, both living and extinct. Classification provides a framework in which to study the relationships among living and extinct species. Archaeopteryx Taxonomy: A framework

17. Section 17.1 Summary – pages 443-449 Taxonomy: A useful tool Anyone can learn to identify many organisms using a dichotomous key. A key is made up of sets of numbered statements. Each set deals with a single characteristic of an organism, such as leaf shape or arrangement.

18. Section 17.1 Summary – pages 443-449 How Living Things Are Classified In any classification system, items are categorized, making them easier to find and discuss. Although biologists group organisms, they subdivide the groups on the basis of more specific criteria. A group of organisms is called a taxon (plural, taxa).

19. Section 17.1 Summary – pages 443-449 Taxonomic rankings Organisms are ranked in taxa that range from having very broad characteristics to very specific ones. The broader a taxon, the more general its characteristics, and the more species it contains.

20. Section 17.1 Summary – pages 443-449 Taxonomic rankings The smallest taxon is species. Organisms that look alike and successfully interbreed belong to the same species. The next largest taxon is a genus—a group of similar species that have similar features and are closely related.

21. Section 17.1 Summary – pages 443-449 Compare the appearance of a lynx, Lynx rufus, a bobcat, Lynx canadensis, and a mountain lion, Panthera concolor. Lynx Mountain lion Bobcat Taxonomic rankings

22. Section 17.1 Summary – pages 443-449 Domain Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species Eukarya Animalia Chordata Mammalia Carnivora Felidae Lynx rufus Lynx canadensis Bobcat Lynx

23. Most Inclusive to Least Inclusive Place the following groups in the appropriate level: Mammals, Man, Primates, Vertebrates, Animals A B C D E

24. Most Inclusive to Least Inclusive Add the following groups to the appropriate level on the Venn Diagram: Kingdom Plantae, Division Angiospermae, All Organisms, Order Rodentia, Tulip, Kingdom Animalia A B C D E F

25. Most Inclusive to Least Inclusive Complete the Venn Diagram with the following groups: Family Vespidae (yellow jacket), Phylum Arthropoda, Order Lepidoptera (butterflies), Class Insecta, Order Hymenoptera (bees, wasps) A B CD E

26. Most Inclusive to Least Inclusive Draw a Venn Diagram to represent the following groups: Kingdom Animalia Class Osteichthyes (Bony Fish) Phylum Chordata (animals with backbones) Class Chondrichthyes (Cartilaginous Fish) Family Sphyrnidae (Hammerhead Shark)

27. Section 1 Check Question 1 How did Aristotle group organisms such as birds, bats, and insects? D. by their homologous structures C. by their common species B. by their analogous structures A. by their common genus

28. Section 1 Check The answer is B. The organisms were grouped together because of their wings, which, in this case, are analogous structures.

29. Section 1 Check Question 2 Which taxon contains the fewest species? D. phylum C. order B. family A. genus The answer is A, genus.

30. Section 1 Check Question 3 For which of the following species names does the specific epithet mean “handy?” D. Homo habilis C. Australopithecus anamensis B. Homo erectus A. Homo sapiens The answer is D.

31. Section 1 Check Question 4 What is the difference between “classification” and “taxonomy?” Answer Classification is the grouping of objects or information based on similarities. Taxonomy is the branch of biology that classifies and names organisms based on their different characteristics.

32. Section 1 Check Question 5 What are the two parts that make up binomial nomenclature? Answer Binomial nomenclature comprises a genus name followed by a specific epithet.

33. Section 2 Objectives – page 450 1. Put these animals into 3 groups. 2. What characteristics did you use for your system of classification?

34. Unit Overview – pages 366-367 Change Through Time The Six Kingdoms Organizing Life’s Diversity

35. Section 17.2 Summary – pages 450-459 Classification systems today are based on evolutionary relationships. This means extinct animals can also be included in classification schemes. How are evolutionary relationships determined?

36. Section 17.2 Summary – pages 450-459 Evolutionary relationships are determined on the basis of: similarities in structure breeding behavior geographical distribution chromosomes biochemistry How are evolutionary relationships determined?

37. Section 17.2 Summary – pages 450-459 For example, plant taxonomists use structural evidence to classify dandelions and sunflowers in the same family, Asteraceae, because they have similar flower and fruit structures. Structural similarities

38. Section 17.2 Summary – pages 450-459 Sometimes, breeding behavior provides important clues to relationships among species. For example, two species of frogs, Hyla versicolor and Hyla chrysoscelis, live in the same area and look similar. During the breeding season, however, there is an obvious difference in their mating behavior. Scientists concluded that the frogs were two separate species. Breeding behavior

39. Section 17.2 Summary – pages 450-459 Geographical distribution Crushing Bills Probing Bills Grasping Bills Ancestral Species Parrot Bills Seed Feeders Cactus Feeders Insect Feeders Fruit Feeders

40. Section 17.2 Summary – pages 450-459 Chromosome comparisons For example, cauliflower, cabbage, kale, and broccoli look different but have chromosomes that are almost identical in structure. Therefore, biologists propose that these plants are related.

41. Section 17.2 Summary – pages 450-459 Powerful evidence about relationships among species comes from biochemical analyses of organisms. Biochemistry Closely related species have similar DNA sequences and, therefore, similar proteins. In general, the more inherited nucleotide sequences that two species share, the more closely related they are.

42. Section 17.2 Summary – pages 450-459 Phylogeny is the evolutionary history of a species Phylogenetic Classification: Models A classification system that shows the evolutionary history of species is a phylogenetic classification and reveals the evolutionary relationships of species.

43. Section 17.2 Summary – pages 450-459 Cladistics is a biological system of classification that is based on phylogeny. Cladistics Scientists who use cladistics assume that as groups of organisms diverge and evolve from a common ancestral group, they retain some unique inherited characteristics that taxonomists call derived traits.

44. Section 17.2 Summary – pages 450-459 A cladogram is a branching diagram used to identify a group’s derived traits; it is a model of phylogeny of a species Cladistics Cladograms are hypothetical evolutionary trees.

45. Section 17.2 Summary – pages 450-459 Cladistics Theropods Allosaurus Sinornis Velociraptor Archaeopteryx Robin Light bones 3-toed foot; wishbone Dry scales Feathers with shaft, veins, and barbs Flight feathers; arms as long as legs

46. Section 17.2 Summary – pages 450-459 Organisms are assigned to a group on a cladogram by a unique characteristic they share in common with other members of that group. A derived character is a unique trait, such as dry skin, that is used to assign an organism to a group. Cladistics

47. Section 17.2 Summary – pages 450-459 One type of model resembles a fan. Another type of model A fanlike model may communicate the time organisms became extinct or the relative number of species in a group. A fanlike diagram incorporates fossil information and the knowledge gained from anatomical, embryological, genetic, and cladistic studies.

48. Section 17.2 Summary – pages 450-459 Life’s Six Kingdoms Life’s Six Kingdoms

49. Section 17.2 Summary – pages 450-459 The six kingdoms of organisms are archaebacteria, eubacteria, protists, fungi, plants, and animals. The Six Kingdoms of Organisms In general, differences in cellular structures and methods of obtaining energy are the two main characteristics that distinguish among the members of the six kingdoms.

50. Section 17.2 Summary – pages 450-459 The prokaryotes, organisms with cells that lack distinct nuclei bounded by a membrane, are microscopic and unicellular. Prokaryotes Some are heterotrophs (eat other organisms) and some are autotrophs (make their own food).

51. Section 17.2 Summary – pages 450-459 Prokaryotes In turn, some prokaryotic autotrophs are chemosynthetic, whereas others are photosynthetic. There are two kingdoms of prokaryotic organisms: Archaebacteria and Eubacteria.

52. Section 17.2 Summary – pages 450-459 Archaebacteria live in extreme environments such as swamps, deep-ocean hydrothermal vents, and seawater evaporating ponds. Most of these environments are oxygen-free. Prokaryotes

53. Section 17.2 Summary – pages 450-459 Prokaryotes All of the other prokaryotes, about 5000 species of bacteria, are classified in Kingdom Eubacteria. Eubacteria have very strong cell walls and a less complex genetic makeup than found in archaebacteria or eukaryotes.

54. Section 17.2 Summary – pages 450-459 Prokaryotes They live in most habitats except the extreme ones inhabited by the archaebacteria. Although some eubacteria cause diseases, such as strep throat and pneumonia, most bacteria are harmless and many are actually helpful.

55. Section 17.2 Summary – pages 450-459 Protists: A diverse group Kingdom Protista contains diverse species that share some characteristics. A protist is a eukaryote that lacks complex organ systems and lives in moist environments. Cilia Oral groove Gullet Micronucleus and macronucleus Contractile vacuole Anal pore A Paramecium

56. Section 17.2 Summary – pages 450-459 Protists: A diverse group Although some protists are unicellular, others are multicellular. Some are plantlike autotrophs, some are animal-like heterotrophs, and others are funguslike heterotrophs that produce reproductive structures like those of fungi.

57. Section 17.2 Summary – pages 450-459 Fungi: Earth’s decomposers Organisms in Kingdom Fungi are heterotrophs that do not move from place to place. A fungus is either a unicellular or multicellular eukaryote that absorbs nutrients from organic materials in the environment.

58. Section 17.2 Summary – pages 450-459 Fungi: Earth’s decomposers There are more than 50,000 known species of fungi.

59. Section 17.2 Summary – pages 450-459 Plants: Multicellular oxygen producers All of the organisms in Kingdom Plantae are eukaryotic, multicellular, photosynthetic autotrophs. None moves from place to place.

60. Section 17.2 Summary – pages 450-459 Plants: Multicellular oxygen producers A plant’s cells usually contain chloroplasts and have cell walls composed of cellulose. Plant cells are organized into tissue that, in turn, are organized into organs and organ systems.

61. Section 17.2 Summary – pages 450-459 There are more than 250,000 known species of plants. Although you may be most familiar with flowering plants, there are many other types of plants, including mosses, ferns, and evergreens. Plants: Multicellular oxygen producers

62. Section 17.2 Summary – pages 450-459 Animals: Multicellular consumers Animals are multicellular heterotrophs. Nearly all are able to move from place to place. Animal cells do not have cell walls.

63. Section 17.2 Summary – pages 450-459 Animals: Multicellular consumers Their cells are organized into tissues that, in turn, are organized into organs and complex organ systems.

64. Fold two vertical sheets of paper in half from top to bottom. To return to the chapter summary click escape or close this document.

65. Turn both papers horizontally and cut the papers in half along the folds. Discard one of the pieces. To return to the chapter summary click escape or close this document.

66. Fold the three remaining vertical pieces in half from top to bottom. To return to the chapter summary click escape or close this document.

67. Turn the papers horizontally. Tape the short ends of the pieces together (overlapping the edges slightly) to make an accordian book. To return to the chapter summary click escape or close this document. Tape

68. Label each fold with the name of one of the six kingdoms. Put characteristics of each kingdom under its heading. To return to the chapter summary click escape or close this document.

69. Section 2 Check Which of the following is NOT a way to determine evolutionary relationships? Question 1 D. geographical distribution C. specific epithets B. biochemistry A. chromosome comparisons The answer is C.

70. Section 2 Check How does a cladogram differ from a pedigree? Question 2 Answer Pedigrees show the direct ancestry of an organism from two parents. Cladograms show a probable evolution from an ancestral group.

71. Section 2 Check Using the cladogram, which of the following traits would be a primitive trait? Question 3 Theropods Allosaurus Sinornis Velociraptor Archaeopteryx Robin Light bones 3-toed foot; wishbone Down feathers Feathers with shaft, veins, and barbs Flight feathers; arms as long as legs

72. Section 2 Check Question 3 Theropods Allosaurus Sinornis Velociraptor Archaeopteryx Robin Light bones 3-toed foot; wishbone Down feathers Feathers with shaft, veins, and barbs Flight feathers; arms as long as legs A. down feathers B. arms as long as legs C. light bonesD. flight feathers

73. Section 2 Check The answer is C. Primitive traits are traits that evolved very early. Theropods Allosaurus Sinornis Velociraptor Archaeopteryx Robin Light bones 3-toed foot; wishbone Down feathers Feathers with shaft, veins, and barbs Flight feathers; arms as long as legs

74. Section 2 Check Why do taxonomists use Latin names for classification? Question 4 Answer Latin is no longer used in conversation and, therefore, does not change.

75. Section 2 Check What is the relationship between cladistics and taxonomy? Question 5 Answer Cladistics is one kind of taxonomy that is based on phylogeny.

76. Chapter Assessment Domain Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species Eukarya Animalia Chordata Mammalia Carnivora Felidae Lynx rufus Lynx canadensis Bobcat Lynx Question 1

77. Both organisms are members of the same kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, and genus but belong to different species. Chapter Assessment

78. Question 2 Which taxon contains the others? D. family C. genus B. class A. order The answer is B.

79. Chapter Assessment Question 3 Which of the following pairs of terms is NOT related? D. Aristotle – evolutionary relationships C. biology – taxonomy B. binomial nomenclature – Linnaeus A. specific epithet – genus The answer is D.

80. Chapter Assessment Domain Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species Eukarya Animalia Chordata Mammalia Carnivora Felidae Lynx rufus Lynx canadensis Bobcat Lynx Question 4

81. Bobcats are more closely associated with lynxes as cats than as mammals. Domain Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species Eukarya Animalia Chordata Mammalia Carnivora Felidae Lynx rufus Lynx canadensis Bobcat Lynx Chapter Assessment

82. Question 5 What two main characteristics distinguish the members of the six kingdoms? Answer The two characteristics are differences in cellular structures and methods of obtaining energy.

83. Chapter Assessment Question 6 Which of the following is NOT true of both the animal and plant kingdoms? D. cells contain cell walls C. cells are organized into tissues B. tissues are organized into organs A. both contain organisms made up of cells The answer is D.

84. Chapter Assessment Question 7 Which of the following describes a fungus? D. heterotrophic prokaryote C. unicellular autotroph B. unicellular or multicellular heterotroph A. autotrophic prokaryote

85. The answer is B, unicellular or multicellular heterotroph. Chapter Assessment

86. Question 8 What is a dichotomous key? Answer A dichotomous key is a set of paired statements that can be used to identify organisms.

87. Chapter Assessment Question 9 How has DNA-DNA hybridization shown that flamingoes are more closely related to storks than they are to geese?

88. When DNA from storks and flamingoes was allowed to bond, DNA base pairs matched and the strands bonded more strongly than when DNA from flamingoes and geese was allowed to bond. Flamingo Stork Chapter Assessment