2. Carbohydrates Carbohydrates are compounds made of Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen. They are made in PHOTOSYNTHESIS This process is carried out in the leaves of Green Plants. Green plants contain a special pigment called CHLOROPHYLL which traps sunlight. Plants use this energy along with CO 2 gas and Water to make food – Glucose (sugar), Oxygen is also released. CO 2 + H 2 O —>O 2 + C 6 H 12 O 6 Light and Chlorophyll must be present for the reaction to take place.

3. Examples of Carbohydrates Carbohydrates contain the elements C.H. and O. There are twice as many H in the molecules as C and O. They can be split into 3 main groups: monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides.( saccharide = sugar group) Monosacharides – formula C 6 H 12 O 6 e.g. glucose, fructose and galactose. They are isomers. Disaccharides – formula C 12 H 22 O 11 e.g.. Lactose, maltose, sucrose. They are isomers Polysaccharides – (C 6 H 10 O 5 )n e.g.. Cellulose, starch, glycogen.

4. Respiration Respiration is when Carbohydrates are broken down to release energy. Oxygen must be present. CO 2 and H 2 O are produced. C 6 H 12 O 6 +O 2 —>CO 2 + H 2 O ( energy is released) When we eat food the energy trapped in the food is released. We can show that energy is contained in food in the lab. Example Exploding custard tin. When we burn sugar in the lab we can test the products. We use lime water and collect the colourless liquid produced in a U tube. (CO 2 + H 2 O)

5. The Carbon Cycle These 2 reactions working together make part of the Carbon Cycle. Humans can destroy the balance by: Burning – CO 2 is produced. Chopping down trees/plants- less photosynthesis therefore too much CO 2 and less O 2 in the atmosphere. When any C compound is burned CO 2 is produced ( Fossil Fuels) Photosynthesis and respiration are the chemical opposites of one another. When they work together without intervention they ensure the correct balance of gases in the air. We breathe out CO 2. Plants use this in Photosynthesis. They give out O 2. We require this for respiration. Plants go through respiration when there is no sunlight.

6. Testing for Carbohydrates Iodine test Starch will turn Iodine solution from brown to blue/black. Benedict’s Test (Fehling’s) Monosaccharides and disaccharides – except sucrose will turn Benedict's reagent from blue to orange.

7. Properties of Carbohydrates Mono and disaccharides are usually soluble in water. If you shine a beam of light through it, the light will pass strait through. They are sweet tasting. Starch is not sweet tasting. It forms a colloid in water – it looks as if it has dissolved but if you shine a beam of light through it you can see the particles. The molecules are too big to dissolve.

8. Making long chain Carbohydrates Disaccharides and polysaccharides are made when monosaccharides undergo condensation polymerisation. 1 water molecule is released for every two monomers joined. Example Glucose +Glucose —> maltose + water C 6 H 12 O 6 + C 6 H 12 O 6 —> C 12 H 22 O 11 + H 2 O

9. Breaking Long Chain Carbohydrates Hydrolysis is the break down of Carbohydrates into smaller molecules. E.g. Starch being broken down into Glucose. This is the opposite of polymerisation. A water molecule has to be added back – hydrolysis. An acid or enzyme has to be present for this to happen. Sucrose breaks down to give 1 fructose molecule and 1 glucose molecule. Sucrose —> glucose + fructose C 12 H 22 O 11 Acid/enzyme C 6 H 12 O 6 + C 6 H 12 O 6

10. Digestion When we eat starchy food our bodies break it down into smaller molecules so they can pass through the gut wall into the blood. This is another example of Hydrolysis. It starts off in the mouth. Saliva contains an enzyme, amylase, which starts to break down the starch.It continues in the stomach, where acid is found. (C 6 H 10 O 5 )n—>C 6 H 12 O 6 –Acid/enzyme

11. Digestion in the lab Place starch solution in 3 different test-tubes To one add amylase To another add acid Add nothing to the third Place all 3 in water bath at 37C ( body T) Test each test-tube with Benedict’s solution after a few minutes. The test-tubes with the acid and amylase will turn orange – proving the starch has been broken down into glucose.

12. Identifying the products of Digestion/Hydrolysis Look at how far each spot has travelled. Compare the spots of the mono and disaccharides with H1 and H2. Match up the spots at same level to identify the which type of sugar is produced in Hydrolysis. We can use CHROMATOGRAPHY Spot the paper with:the products of hydrolysis of starch(H1) and sucrose(H2) and mono and disaccharides. Do not mix the spots. Let the chromatography run. Look at results

13. Fermentation Equation C 6 H 12 O 6 → C 2 H 5 OH +CO 2 C 2 H 5 OH is ethanol. It is part of the Alkanols. This is another homologous series. This is the process of making Alcohol from sugar. Small sugar molecules can be converted to alcohol, using the enzyme Zymase, which is found in yeast. Carbon dioxide is also released.

14. Alcoholic Drinks Alcohol slows down our reactions. Too much can damage our livers. It can also be used as a fuel. You can make alcohol from any carbohydrate source. SourceAlcohol Barley Beer/Whiskey ApplesCider Grapes Wine/Sherry PotatoesVodka

15. Distillation We place the impure alcohol in the distillation flask with antibumping granules. Heat up the mixture. Ethanol has BP of is 78C, water is 100C. The alcohol will boil first, pass along delivery tube and condense back to liquid. WE can repeat this process to purify it even more. Spirits are distilled. WE can increase the strength of alcohol by distilling it. This removes any impurities.( normal alcohol concentration in fermentation is 15% - any stronger and the enzyme is destroyed – DENATURED)

16. Making Whisky Step 3 Fermentation Yeast added – Glucose brakes down into ethanol and Carbon dioxide Step 4 – Distilling To purify whisky – increase concentration. Step 5 – Blending Mix different whisky’s then bottle them( malt whisky - not blended) Step 1 – Malting Barley is Hydrolysed into Maltose (uses enzyme in Barley) – Green Malt Step 2 – Mashing Green Malt roasted on peat fire and Mashed