1. Is “the Love of Money” the Root of All Evil
Is “the Love of Money” the Root of All Evil? Or Different Strokes for Different Folks: Lessons in 12 Countries
Thomas Li-Ping Tang
The International Conference on
Business Ethics in the Knowledge Economy, Hong Kong
April 3, 2002 (Revised 9/16/2002)

2. Co-Authors
Adebowale Akande, Abdulgawi Salim Alzubaidi, Mark G. Borg, Bor-Shiuan Cheng, Randy K. Chiu, Chin-Kang Jen, Ali Mahdi Kazem, Vivien Kim Geok Lim, Eva Malovics, Johnsto E. Osagie, Raja Pholsward, Elisaveta Sardzoska, Allen F. Stembridge, Toto Sutarso, Theresa Li-Na Tang, Thompson Sian Hin Teo, and Peter Vlerick

3. Now, Please Pay Attention to my Outline: *The Meaning of Money
*The Love of Money
*A Model of Unethical Behavior
*Methods
*Results: the Whole Sample, Compare 12 Countries Simultaneously
*Recommendations

4. The Color of Money Color Size Shape Cross-Cultural Differences:
History, Culture, People (Citizen, President, King, Queen), Architecture, National Pride, World View, Euro-305M 12

5. The Meaning of Money
Father Joseph P. Breen of St. Edward in Nashville, TN Celebrated 40 Years Priesthood on 2/28/2002. (Story by Fr. Wiatt A. Funk.) Turbulence,
In God we..
Priests: Pray, Ask

6. The Meaning of Money $20 vs. $1 in a Money Bag
Shall we create a pay-for-performance program for priests?
The Government has no money until you pay...
The Terrorists

10. The Meaning of Money
Money is the instrument of commerce and the measure of value (Smith, 1776/1937).
The meaning of money is “in the eye of the beholder” (McClelland, 1967, p. 10).

11. Money is the Measure of Value
Who has more value?
1. An Economist Eugen Bohm Bawerk
2. A Psychologist Sigmund Freud
3. An Artist Moritz M. Daffinger

12. In Austria Austrian Schillings (ATS) US$1 = ATS 15.53 (1/1/2002)
An Economist ATS 100
A Psychologist ATS 50
An Artist ATS 20
The Value is on the Face of ATS!?
Who has the most money?

13. In the US 1 Dollar Bill: 5 Dollar Bill: Washington Lincoln
10 Dollar: 20 Dollar:
Hamilton Jackson
50 Dollar: Dollar
Grant Franklin
2 Dollar: 3 Dollar:
Jefferson Clinton White House (For Sale)

17. The Meaning of Money: Theory
Money is a motivator (Gupta & Shaw, 1998; Lawler, 1981; Locke, Feren, McCaleb, Shaw, & Danny, 1980: 381).
Money is a hygiene factor (Herzberg, Mausner & Snyderman, 1959; Kohn, 1998; Pfeffer, 1998).
People’s attitudes toward money can be perceived as their “frame of reference” in which they examine their everyday lives (Tang, 1992).

18. Managers *Attract, Retain, and Motivate employees
*Achieve Company Goals (Chiu, Luk, & Tang, 1998; Milkovich & Newman, 2002; Tang, Kim, & Tang, 2000; Tang, Luk, & Chiu, 2000).

19. Research: Performance Improvement
4 Methods:
1. Participation
2. Job Design
3. Goal Setting
4. Contingent Payment

20. The Meaning of Money-Motivator
Performance Improvement
Participation: %
Job Design: %
Goal Setting: %
Contingent Payment: 30%.
Movements vs. Intrinsic Motivation.
What gets measured gets done (Inc., 1998, June)

21. The Meaning of Money-Hygiene
Money is a Hygiene factor (Herzberg, Mausner & Snyderman, 1959). 0, 0 point escalates
Salary has more potency as a job dissatisfier than as a job satisfier (82).
In the lows salary is found almost three times as often in the long-range as in the short-range sequences (82).

22. The Meaning of Money-Hygiene
Cameron & Pierce (1994). Review of Educational Research.
Kohn (1993, September/October). Harvard Business Review.
Kohn (1998, March/April). Compensation and Benefits Review.
Pearce (1987). New perspectives on compensation.
Pfeffer (1998, May/June). Six dangerous myths about pay. Harvard Business Review.

23. The Meaning of Money
Money always represents or signifies something other than itself (Crump, 1981).
One is not interested in money, but in what money will buy (Crump, 1981).

24. Time is Money $
Time

25. Time is Money
My account is worth every penny he charges because of the time he saves me.
This year, for example, he probably saved me five to ten years in prison.

26. The ABCs of Money Attitudes
Affective: Do you “love or hate” money?
Behavioral: What do you “do” with your money?
Cognitive: What does money “mean” to you?

27. Measures of Money Attitudes-1
Burgoyne (1990). Money in marriage.
Janda (1998). Love & Sex Tests.
Holbrook, MA: Adams Media Corp MES

28. Measures of Money Attitudes-2
Bailey & Gustafson (1986, 1991). Money beliefs and behaviour scale. Handbook of Behavioral Economics.
Bailey & Lown (1993). Journal of Consumer Studies and Home Economics.
Bailey, Johnson, Adams, Lawson, Williams, & Lown (1994). Consumer Interests Annual.
Doyle (1992). American Behavioral Scientist.
Fank (1994). Money handling inventory, PAID.

29. Measures of Money Attitudes-3
Furnham (1984). Many sides of the coin: PAID.
Furnham & Argyle (1998). The psychology of money.
Goldberg & Lewis (1979). Money madness: The psychology of saving, spending, loving, and hating money.
Gresham & Footenot (1989). The Money Attitude Scale. Advances in marketing.
Hanley & Wihelm (1992). Money Beliefs and Behaviour Scale. JEP.

30. Measures of Money Attitudes-4
Haraoka (1990). Money & value orientation, PJSSP.
Lim & Teo (1997). Sex, money and financial hardship, JEP
Luna-Arocas, Quintanilla, & Diaz (1995). EAD-6, IAREP.
Luna-Arocas (1998). Dinero, Trabajo y Consumo. PROMOLIBRO
Lynn (1991). The secret of the miracle economy.

31. Measures of Money Attitudes-5
McClure (1984). Money attitudes and overall pathology, PAQJHB.
Mitchell & Mickel (1999)**. The meaning of money: Money Importance Scale, AMR.
Opsahl & Dunnette (1966). The role of financial compensation in industrial motivation, PB

32. Measures of Money Attitudes-6
Quintanilla (1997). Psicologia Economica. McGraw Hill.
Richins & Rudmin (1994). Materialism, JEP.
Rubenstein (1981). Money & self-esteem, relationships, secrecy, envy, satisfaction, PT.
Tang (1992). The Money Ethic Scale, JOB.
Tang (1995, PAID; 1999, PPM; in press, PR; Tang et al., 2002), 5 Versions

33. Measures of Money Attitudes-7
Thierry (2000). The meaning of pay, in Erez & Thierry (Eds.) Work motivation.
Wernimont & Fitzpatrick (1972). The meaning of money, JAP.
Yamauchi & Templer (1982). Money attitude scale, JPA.
Zelizer (1989). The social meaning of money: Special monies, AJS.
Zuckerman (1983). Sensation seeking.

34. Mitchell & Mickel (1999)
The well-developed measures are those that have been developed more carefully and used more systematically. There are three of these: (1) the money ethics scale (Tang, 1992, 1993, 1995), (2) the money belief and behavior scale (Furnham, 1984; Furnham, Kirkcaldy, & Lynn, 1994), and (3) the money importance scale (Mitchell, Dakin, Mickel, & Gray, 1998) (AMR: 571).

35. Why Do We Study Money Attitude?
The Importance of Money (Mitchell & Mickel, 1999)
The Meaning of Money (Individual Difference)
Money  Materialism
Other Attitudes--Pay Satisfaction

36. Why Do We Study Money Attitude?
Pay Dissatisfaction has numerous undesirable consequences (Heneman & Judge, 2000)
Commitment, Turnover, Counter-Productive Behavior, and Unethical Behavior (Cohen-Charash & Spector, 2001; Hom & Griffeth, 1995; Tang, Kim, & Tang, 2000)

37. The Money Ethic Scale Measures the Meaning of Money
Follows the ABC Model
Has Multi-Dimensional Constructs (5 versions)
Is Well Developed and Systematically Used (17 papers)
Reflects Individual Differences

38. The Money Ethic Scale Has been used in many samples,
in many countries, and
in many languages (published articles): Chinese, English, French, Italian, Spanish, Russian, etc.

39. Research Question:
Does money (income) have a direct and/or indirect impact on unethical behavior?
Does money attitude (the love of money, the MES) have a direct and/or indirect impact on unethical behavior?

40. MES in This Study Money is a Motivator Money is a sign of my Success
Money is Important
I want to be Rich
58 items, EFA—US Sample, 14 factors,
Select 4 factors (17 items), EFA, CFA--Whole Sample, 12 Countries

41. The Love of Money
Motivator
Success
Important
Rich

42. Motivator
No other incentive or motivational technique comes even close to money (Locke, Feren, McCaleb, Shaw, & Danny, 1980: 381).
Money is a motivator (Gupta & Shaw, 1998; Lawler, 1981).
Ex. I am motivated to work hard for money. Money is a motivator.

43. Success In America, money is how we keep score (Rubenstein, 1981).
Some people are obsessed with “money as a sign of success” (Furnham & Argyle, 1998: 148)
Ex. Money represents my achievement. Money is a symbol of my success.

44. Importance
The one consistent thread in this body of work is “the emphasis on its importance” (Mitchell & Mickel, 1999: 569)
Ex. Money is important. Money is an important factor in the lives of all of us.

45. Rich Would you like to be Rich or Poor? Most people: Rich
Being Rich will make you feel Good, Happy, Powerful, Beautiful, Healthy, etc.
Many CEOs are tested G-r-e-e-d positive (Crystal, 1990, Fortune).
Ex. Having a lot of money (being rich) is good. I want to be rich.

46. Other Variables Income Pay Satisfaction Organizational Commitment
Unethical Behavior
Ethical Corporate Culture
Sex, Job Changes

47. Pay Satisfaction Pay Level Benefits Raises Pay Administration
18-Item Pay Satisfaction Questionnaire:
Pay Level
Benefits
Raises
Pay Administration
Heneman & Schwab (1985)

48. Organizational Commitment
15-Item Organizational Commitment Questionnaire.
Two Indicators:
Commitment, Not to Leave (- items)
Mowday, Steers, and Porter (1979)

49. Ethical Culture 5-Item Corporate Ethical Culture Two Indicators:
Ethical Policy (3 items), Act Ethically (2 items) (Hunt, Wood, & Chonko (1989).

50. Unethical Behavior Abuse Position (theft, 5 items) +
15-Scenario Unethical Behavior Tendency
Abuse Position (theft, 5 items) +
Ex. Take merchandise and/or cash.
Abuse Power (corruption, 5 items)
Ex. Accept money, gifts, and kickback from others.
Abuse Resources (office supply, 3 items)
Ex. Waste company time. Use office supplies.
Take No Action for Unethical Behavior (look the other way, 2 items)
Ex. Take no action for shoplifting/stealing cash/merchandise.

51. In This Study Motivator, Success, Importance, & Rich 
“The Love of Money”
Abuse Position, Power, Resources, & Take No Action 
“Evil”

52. Is “money” the root of evil? Is “the love of money” the root of evil?
In This Study
Is “money” the root of evil?
Is “the love of money” the root of evil?
The love of money is the root of all evils (Bible: Timothy, 6:10).

53. Cross-Cultural Study
Australia*, Austria, Belgium, Brazil*, Bulgaria*, Canada, Chile, China, Congo (Zaire), Cuba, Czechoslovakia, Egypt, France, Germany, Hong Kong, Hungary, India, Ireland, Italy*, Macau, Macedonia, Malaysia, Malta, Mexico*, Nigeria*, Oman, Panama (?), Peru, Philippines, Poland, Portugal*, Puerto Rico, Romania*, Russia, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Slovenia*, South Korea, South Africa, Spain*, Taiwan, Thailand, Turkey, Ukraine, the UK, the USA, and Venezuela.

54. Need Your Help To expand this project:
Need People in different parts of the world
If you or your colleagues in your country or other countries are interested, please let me know. Thank YOU.

55. A Model of Unethical Behavior
Pay
Satisfaction
Money
Ethic
Sex
Culture
Z Income
Commitment
Unethical
Behavior
Jobs

56. Income  Money Ethic Inverted U: + , 0, --
Unsatisfied needs are important, satisfied needs are not (Alderfer, 1971; Maslow, 1970)
Financial Hardship  Obsessed with Money (Dittmar, Tang, & Tillery, 2001; Lim & Teo, 1997; Lynn, 1991; Tang et al., 2001) (+ path)

57. Income  Money Ethic
Higher Incomes  Lower Marginal Utility of Money (Brandstatter & Brandstatter, 1996) (-- path)
Fairly Paid Income  MES: Non-significant (Tang, Luna-Arocas et al, 2001)
Compare Income with (1) GDP per Capita or (2) Bill Gates (52.8B)

58. Income  Money Ethic
Among nations: As nations get richer, increases in wealth are associated with diminishing increases in well-being (Ahuvia & Friedman, 1998; Schyns, 1998)
Objective Wealth vs. Subjective Appraisals (Ahuvia & Friedman, 1998)

59. Objective Money (Income)
Within nations: Increased income is associated with well-being for the poor; once the poverty threshold is crossed, increased income matters little for happiness (Czikszentmihali, 1999;Diener, 2000; Myers 2000; Oishi, Diener, Lucas, & Such, 1999; Oropesa, 1995, Richins & Rudmin, 1994; Schyns, 2000; Tatzel, 2002)

60. Objective Money (Income)
If we are so rich, why aren’t we happy?
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1999). American Psychologist, 54,

61. Subjective Money (Compare)
Subjective well-being increases as income increases from below average to above average within one’s home community (Hagerty, 2000)

62. East Asia
The major global market for luxury goods (Wong & Ahuvia, 1998)
Thailand: very Materialistic, regarding possessions as a measure of Success, valuing possessions for their public visibility (face) over private, personal meaning (Webster & Batty, 1997; Wong & Ahuvia, 1998).

64. Hong Kong
Cash Mentality (Chiu, Luk, & Tang, 2001)
The Most Popular Car in Hong Kong…Public Visibility--Face

65. MES  Pay Satisfaction Equity Theory (Adams, 1965)
Discrepancy Model (Lawler, 1971)
Expectation vs. Reality
“The Love of Money” as the Frame of Reference, i.e., expectation, standards
High MES  High Pay Dissatisfaction

66. Pay Satisfaction  Commitment
Job Satisfaction  Commitment (Williams & Hazer, 1986, SEM)
There is reciprocal and synchronous causality between commitment and satisfaction, with satisfaction influencing commitment more than vice versa (Home & Griffeth, 1995: 98).

67. Pay Satisfaction  Commitment
Perceived unfair procedural and distributive justice  negative attitudes toward the organization (e.g., lower trust and commitment) (Cohen-Charash & Spector, 2001: 288)

68. Commitment  Unethical Behavior
From a procedural justice perspective, perceived injustice will lead to negative perceptions of the organization and, hence to counterproductive behaviors that will hurt the organization (Cohen-Charash & Spector, 2001: 287).

69. Business Ethics Taxonomy and Concepts (Forsyth, 1980; Michalos, 1995)
Culture (Hofstede, 2001; Trompenaars, 1994)
Social Institutions (Parsons, 1990)
Personal Values (England, 1975)
Cross-cultural (Wines & Napier, 1992)

70. Ethical Culture  Commitment
Top-level Manager can reduce unethical behavior (Finn, Chonko, & Hunt, 1988)
Attraction-Selection-Attrition (Chatman, 1989; Douglas & Schwartz, 1999; Ponemon & Glazer, 1990; Tang & Frost, 1999)
Differences in ethical culture across firms and across offices within the same firm (Jeffrey & Weatherholt, 1996)

71. Ethical Culture  Commitment
Ethical Culture  Ethical Behavior (Hunt & Vitell, 1986; Trevino, 1986) *“Directly”
Ethical Culture  Individual Values (i.e., idealism)  Ethical Judgments (Douglas, Davison, & Schwartz, 2001) *“Indirectly”
Ethical Culture  Commitment  Unethical Behavior *Indirectly

72. Sex  MES
Men prefer equity, women prefer equality (Tang, 1996; Tang, Furnham, & Davis, 2000)
Men consider money more important than women (Lawler, 1971)
Women are more subjectively satisfied with their pay than men, the contented female worker (Crosby, 1982; Major & Konar, 1984; Sauser & York, 1978; Smith, Kendall, & Hulin, 1969)

73. Job Changes  Unethical Behavior
Reason for Voluntary Turnover: higher wages/career opportunities (Campion, 1991)
Leavers have lower pay satisfaction and receive 20% pay increase on their new jobs
The number of job changes is a predictor of management professors’ pay (Gomez-Mejia & Balkin, 1992) Self-Interest vs. Organization

74. Sample 2,338 Full-Time White-Collar Employees from 12 Countries:
The US, Belgium, Hong Kong, Hungary, Macedonia, Malta, Oman, Philippines, Singapore, South Africa, Taiwan, and Thailand.
HK is a part of China. We use the term “country” or “culture” for each sample.

75. Additional Data US: income = $34,661, *GDP per Capita = $31,500,
*ratio = 1.10
*CPI (1) Rank = 16, (2) Score = 7.6
Hi income: HK (1.89); Thailand (3.41), Macedonia (2.07)
Lo income: Hungary
Hi Corruption CPI: Score < 5: South Africa, Thailand, Philippines Low Corruption > 9

76. Data Analysis Convert income to Z Income
1. Perform CFA for all measures
The Whole Sample
Cross-Cultural Equivalence:
(1) Factor Structure, (2) Factor Loadings
2. Test the SEM Model: The Whole Sample
3. Compare the Model Across 12 Countries

78. A Model of Unethical Behavior
Whole
-.13*
Pay
Satisfaction
.17*
Money
Ethic
Sex
-.06
Culture
.55*
.68*
Z Income
Commitment
.14*
.01
-.28*
Unethical
Behavior
Jobs
.12*

79. Main Results
The Money Ethic is directly and indirectly related to Unethical Behavior, whereas Income is not.
The “Love of Money” is the root of all Evil.
Money is not the root of all evil.

80. A Model of Unethical Behavior
The US
.03
Pay
Satisfaction
.88*
Money
Ethic
Sex
.04
Culture
.60*
.62*
Z Income
Commitment
.00
.01
-.26*
Unethical
Behavior
Jobs
-.04

81. A Model of Unethical Behavior
Belgium
.09
Pay
Satisfaction
.87*
Money
Ethic
Sex
-.09
Culture
.22*
.81*
Z Income
Commitment
.15
-.07
-.22*
Unethical
Behavior
Jobs
.01

82. A Model of Unethical Behavior
Hong Kong
-.30*
Pay
Satisfaction
.50*
Money
Ethic
Sex
-.28*
Culture
.68*
.38
Z Income
Commitment
.28*
-.14
-.04
Unethical
Behavior
Jobs
.02

83. A Model of Unethical Behavior
Hungary
.09
Pay
Satisfaction
.45*
Money
Ethic
Sex
-.33*
Culture
.56*
.64*
Z Income
Commitment
.02
.66*
-.23*
Unethical
Behavior
Jobs
-.12

84. A Model of Unethical Behavior
Macedonia
.00
Pay
Satisfaction
-.26*
Money
Ethic
Sex
-.13
Culture
.35* -
Z Income
Commitment
.04
.17
-.12
Unethical
Behavior
Jobs
.08

85. A Model of Unethical Behavior
Malta
-.25*
Pay
Satisfaction
.11
Money
Ethic
Sex
-.03
Culture
.70* -
Z Income
Commitment
.38*
-.13
-.34*
Unethical
Behavior
Jobs
.04

86. A Model of Unethical Behavior
Oman
-.35*
Pay
Satisfaction
.96*
Money
Ethic
Sex
-.22*
Culture
.50*
.52
Z Income
Commitment
.33*
-.14
-.18
Unethical
Behavior
Jobs
.25*

87. A Model of Unethical Behavior
Philippines
.13
Pay
Satisfaction
.04
Money
Ethic
Sex
.17
Culture
.74*
.92
Z Income
Commitment
.01
.07
-.33*
Unethical
Behavior
Jobs
-.13

88. A Model of Unethical Behavior
Singapore
-.21*
Pay
Satisfaction
.22*
Money
Ethic
Sex
-.04
Culture
.56*
.58
Z Income
Commitment
.29*
-.20
-.19*
Unethical
Behavior
Jobs
.04

89. A Model of Unethical Behavior
South Africa
.55*
Pay
Satisfaction
.25*
Money
Ethic
Sex
-.02
Culture - -
Z Income
Commitment
.15*
-.31* -
Unethical
Behavior
Jobs
-.05

90. A Model of Unethical Behavior
Taiwan
-.13
Pay
Satisfaction
.14*
Money
Ethic
Sex
-.09
Culture
.69*
.51*
Z Income
Commitment
.14
-.12
-.22*
Unethical
Behavior
Jobs
.01

91. A Model of Unethical Behavior
Thailand
-.20*
Pay
Satisfaction
-.20*
Money
Ethic
Sex
.22*
Culture
.60* -
Z Income
Commitment
.06
.15
-.12
Unethical
Behavior
Jobs
.13

92. Summary: 12 Countries 12 Countries -: 5; (+: 1) +:5; (-:2) Pay Money
Satisfaction
Money
Ethic
Sex
+: 1, 0: 8
-: 3
Culture 10 4
Z Income
Commitment
+:1;
-:1 5 7
Unethical
Behavior
Jobs 1

93. A Simplified Model 12 Countries -.13* Pay Money Satisfaction Ethic
.61*
Commitment
-.24*
Unethical
Behavior

94. Discussion
Employee theft is a $200 million-dollar a year problem in the US
Some managers condone theft by looking the other way
Treat that as “an invisible wage structure” to compensate for their lower than average wages

95. Discussion Financial loss is attributed to Employee Theft--38.4%
Shoplifting—35.6%
Administrative Error –19.4%
Vender Theft—6.4%

96. Discussion Average Loss Shoplifting—$142.49 per incident
Employee Theft–$737.31
Armed Robbery–$2,410
Culture of corruption  Business failures
Discourage and Prevent

97. How Do Managers Discourage and Prevent Unethical Behavior?
Create Pay Fairness
Internal Equity (Vertical Pay Differential)
External Competitiveness (Market) and
Individual Equity (Merit, Seniority)

98. Discourage and Prevent
Procedural Justice (rules of the game, How the decision was made, the means)
Distributive Justice (results of the game, What was decided, the ends)

99. Discourage and Prevent
Set Role Models
Create Ethical Corporate Culture
Use Reward and Punishment
Establish Ethics Hot Line
Develop Profiles of Dishonest Employees
Select Good Employees HRM
Install Surveillance Systems
Provide Training to Employees

100. Organizational Culture
Top management: Decoration or Dedication?
One company has built their organization around these four values*:
Communication, Respect, Integrity, Excellence
Can you name this company?
Culture can only be strong when the commitment to norms and values is strong.
*Taken from Year 2000 Annual Report

101. CEOs’ Pay Corporate Corruptions
Enron Chairman Kenneth Lay and his wife own over 30 million dollars worth of real estates and stocks
Employees lost their jobs and 1 billion deferred compensation and pension plan

102. CEOs’ Pay
Michael Eisner, CEO of Walt Disney made US$575,592,000 in 1998
The average worker made $30,000 in 1998
Pay Differential = 19,320 to 1

103. Money Profiles
Evil, Budget, Charity, Importance, Motivator, Success, Cluster Analysis
Conscientious Steward
Frugal Budgeter
Money Worshiper
Careless Handler

104. Good Money Profiles
Conscientious Steward (H-C; L-IMS) H satisfaction, L jobs, all Unethical Behavior
Frugal Budgeter (H-B; L-E) H Satisfaction
Evil, Budget, Charity, Importance, Motivator, Success

105. Bad Money Profiles
Money Worshiper (H-EIMS)- Abuse Power, Take No Action
Careless Handler (L-BC) Abuse Position, Resources
Evil, Budget, Charity, Importance, Motivator, Success

106. The love of money is the root of evil. (Tim, 6:10)
Conclusion
The love of money is the root of evil. (Tim, 6:10)

107. Additional Thoughts
It is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle, than for a rich man to enter into the kingdom of God.
Judas, who betrayed Jesus for a sum of money (30 pieces of silver), was the treasurer of the disciples. John, 12: 6; 13: 29
For when he dieth he shall carry nothing away: his glory shall not descent after him. Psa, 49: 17
Beloved, follow not that which is evil, but that which is good. He that doeth good is of God: but he that doeth evil hath not seen God. John, 11

108. Professional Wrestlers as Ushers: Increased Collection Plate Donations by 72%

109. Thank You
Danke
Dankeshen
Grazie
Merci
Muchas Gracias