1. AQA Examinations A Level Sport and Physical Education A 6581
Module 4 part E
Physiological, Biomechanical and Psychological Factors which Optimise Performance

2. INDEX Index 3 - PERSONALITY 4 - THEORIES OF PERSONALITY - TRAIT
TRAIT THEORIES - CATTELL - EYSENCK
5 - EYSENCK’S PERSONALITY TRAIT DIMENSIONS
6 - EVALUATION OF TRAIT THEORIES
7 - THEORIES OF PERSONALITY - SOCIAL LEARNING
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY - BANDURA
VICARIOUS CONDITIONING
8 - THEORIES OF PERSONALITY - INTERACTIONIST - LEWIN
10 - MEASUREMENT OF PERSONALITY
INTERVIEWS / QUESTIONNAIRES / OBSERVATION
11 - THE STRUCTURE OF CATTELL’S 16PF QUESTIONNAIRE
12 - PROFILE OF MOOD STATES (POMS) - MOODS
13 - SELF REPORT TESTS - PROBLEMS WITH THE TESTS
14 - MOTIVES AND MOTIVATORS - THEORIES
15 - INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION
16 - EXTRINSIC REWARDS AND INTRINSIC SOURCES
17 - MAJOR MOTIVES
FOR YOUTH / ADULT SPORT PARTICIPATION
18 - THE EFFECTIVENESS OF EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION
DISADVANTAGES / EXPLANATIONS / APPLICATION
19 - DEVELOPING AND ENHANCING MOTIVATION
PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS / SITUATIONAL ASPECTS
20 - ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION
NEED TO ACHIEVE (NACH) / NEED TO AVOID FAILURE (NAF)
21 - ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION - PERSONALITY COMPONENTS
22 - ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION - SITUATIONAL FACTORS
23 - MOTIVATION AND GOAL SETTING
GOAL STRUCTURE - OUTCOME / TASK ORIENTATION
24 - MOTIVATION AND GOAL SETTING
ENHANCING MOTIVATION
25 - ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION
WHAT SHOULD THE COACH DO?
26 - ATTITUDES IN SPORT
27 - FORMATION OF ATTITUDES
28 - COMPONENTS OF ATTITUDE - THE TRIADIC MODEL
29 - MEASUREMENT OF ATTITUDES
BY OBSERVATION / USING PHYSIOLOGICAL TESTS QUESTIONNAIRES
30 - PREJUDICE AND SPORT STEREOTYPES
NEGATIVE STEREOTYPES
31 - POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE ATTITUDES TO SPORT
32 - ATTITUDE CHANGE BY PERSUASION
AND COGNITIVE DISSONANCE
33 - AGGRESSION IN SPORT
ASSERTION / CHANNELLED AGGRESSION
HOSTILE AGGRESSION / INSTRUMENTAL AGGRESSION
34 - CAUSES OF AGGRESSION
PHYSIOLOGICAL AROUSAL
UNDERDEVELOPED MORAL REASONING
BRACKETED MORALITY / SPECIFIC CAUSES
35 - THEORIES OF AGGRESSION
INSTINCT / FRUSTRATION AGGRESSION THEORIES
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
AGGRESSIVE CUE HYPOTHESIS
36 - SPECTATOR AGGRESSION
37 - RESPONSIBILITY FOR AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOUR
38 - PREVENTION OF AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOUR
GOVERNING BODY
39 - PREVENTION OF AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOUR
COACHES / PLAYERS

3. PERSONALITY PERSONALITY unique characteristics of an individual
knowledge about personality is important to ensure optimum sporting performance

4. THEORIES OF PERSONALITY- TRAIT
TRAIT THEORIES
general (covering all situations)
underlying (inside of and part of the person)
enduring (long lasting)
predisposition (an inclination or motive formed earlier)
CATTELL - EYSENCK’s hierarchical organisation of personality

5. EYSENCK’S PERSONALITY TRAIT DIMENSIONS
WHAT ARE THE CHARACTERISTICS OF PERSONS A - B - C - D? A
stable extrovert
talkative, outgoing, easy going, carefree, showing leader qualities B
neurotic extrovert
restless, aggressive, excitable, changeable C
neurotic introvert
anxious, sober, rigid, pessimistic D
stable introvert
careful, thoughtful, controlled, reliable, even tempered

6. EVALUATION OF TRAIT THEORIES
Personality
EVALUATION OF TRAIT THEORIES
TRAIT THEORIES
have a lack of sophistication
have problems of validity - how do you confirm that the traits exist?
TRAITS
do not predict behaviour
are seen as rigid (they are supposed to be enduring and fixed with time)
the notion that traits are enduring is seen as too long-term - people think that personality factors can change with time
subject to situations which occur which might change these factors
THE TRAIT APPROACH
is seen as being too simple
and therefore produces a limited view of what personality actually is
fails to recognise that people are actively involved in constructing their own personalities
and fails to recognise the effects of environmental situations
as predicted by social learning and interactionist theories

7. THEORIES OF PERSONALITY - SOCIAL LEARNING
SOCIALISATION
sport has a socialising effect
participation in sport establishes norms and values of our society
BANDURA
behaviour is determined by the situation
social comparison
behaving the same way as the peer group
social approval or disapproval determines our responses
behaviour is reinforced or penalised
VICARIOUS CONDITIONING
the learning of emotional responses through observational learning
example :
learning to become angry after a valid referee decision has gone against him / her by watching other players do the same
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
explains behaviour in terms of the reaction to specific situations
we learn to deal with situations by observing others
or by observing the results of our own behaviour on others
and by modelling our own behaviour on what we have seen
athletes learn behaviour by watching others

8. THEORIES OF PERSONALITY - INTERACTIONIST
INTERACTIONIST THEORIES
traits determine behaviour
but can be modified by situations
traits
situations
behaviour
LEWIN
behaviour is a function of both the person (personality P) and the environment (E)
B = f(P,E)

9. THEORIES OF PERSONALITY - INTERACTIONIST
EXAMPLE OF INTERACTIONIST THEORY APPROACH
a young field event athlete shows promise, but worries about competing in important competitions and underperforms in these situations
her coach works with her on anxiety management strategies and in her next competition she achieves a personal best
the innate (trait) factors of the athlete’s personality cannot be changed by a coach
so the coach must therefore get her to view her anxiety (which could be a trait which emerges whenever undue stress is placed on her) in terms of the specific situation of the next competition
the anxiety could be channelled into positive images of her technical model
rejecting poor efforts as due to external factors (the the weather / wind)
and building on positive images of successful technical elements achieved
the athlete can then build success by this focusing on factors other than her own anxiety
this enables her to adjust her behaviour according to internal factors such as rhythm and fluency
this strategy should enable the athlete to remove the stress from the situation and hence reduce anxiety - even if she competes poorly

10. MEASUREMENT OF PERSONALITY
INTERVIEWS
before or after the event
not directly related to performance
open ended and flexible
transient feelings or attitudes may be expressed
difficult to quantify accurately
may be influenced by the interviewer
QUESTIONNAIRES
before or after the event
not directly related to performance
rigidly and systematically set out
transient feelings or attitudes may be expressed
able to quantify accurately
would not be influenced by another
can be used to assess specific traits
OBSERVATION
made during an actual event
directly related to performance
varies according to the competitive nature of the event
difficult to quantify accurately
may be influenced by the observer’s views and attitudes

11. THE STRUCTURE OF CATTELL’S 16PF QUESTIONNAIRE
Personality
THE STRUCTURE OF CATTELL’S 16PF QUESTIONNAIRE

12. PROFILE OF MOOD STATES (POMS)
Personality
PROFILE OF MOOD STATES (POMS)
MOODS
are an important aspect of personality which may influence sports performance
tension
depression
anger
vigour
fatigue
confusion
elite sportspeople show low
tension
depression
confusion
high
vigour
unsuccessful sportspeople show high
tension
depression
fatigue
confusion
low
vigour

13. SELF REPORT TESTS PROBLEMS WITH THE TESTS lack of accuracy
Personality
SELF REPORT TESTS
PROBLEMS WITH THE TESTS
lack of accuracy
participant honesty
the desire to create a favourable impression and therefore give answers which is what the questioner wants, not what the subject feels
lack of objectivity
neurotics emphasise certain traits
ambiguous questions
THE ANSWERS CAN BE INFLUENCED BY :
personality of the tester
time of day / month
previous experience of a test by a subject
a participant’s mood swings
the fact that personality is too complex to be viewed in response to yes or no answers

14. MOTIVES AND MOTIVATORS
Motivation
MOTIVES AND MOTIVATORS
MOTIVATORS
the reasons why sportspeople think and behave as they do
THEORIES

15. INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION
INTRINSIC MOTIVATION

16. EXTRINSIC REWARDS AND INTRINSIC SOURCES
Motivation
EXTRINSIC REWARDS AND INTRINSIC SOURCES
INTRINSIC SOURCES
EXTRINSIC REWARDS

17. MAJOR MOTIVES FOR YOUTH SPORT PARTICIPATION fun being with friends
Motivation
MAJOR MOTIVES
FOR YOUTH SPORT PARTICIPATION
fun
being with friends
thrills
excitement
success
developing fitness
improving skills
being good at it
FOR ADULT SPORT PARTICIPATION
health factors
weight loss
fitness
self-challenge
feeling better

18. THE EFFECTIVENESS OF EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION
DISADVANTAGES
adding extrinsic reward to a situation which already provided intrinsic motivation
decreases the intrinsic motivation
eventually replacing it
so when rewards are no longer available
interest in the situation (sports activity) reduces
EXPLANATIONS
the reward acts as a distraction
to the sports person’s intrinsic desire to work at his / her own pace
rewards may turn play into work
relationships with the person giving rewards might change
the nature of the activity changes
people like to determine their own behaviour
rewards may make them feel that someone else is in charge
APPLICATION OF EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION
to attract youngsters to an activity
to revive flagging motivation
to help a sportsperson over a bad period in training
to provide information about levels of achievement and competence

19. DEVELOPING AND ENHANCING MOTIVATION
MOTIVATION IS A COMBINATION OF
personal characteristics
situational aspects
MOTIVATION IS HIGHEST WHEN
the performer is keen to participate
the performer is keen to learn
the performer is keen to perform
the performer is keen to perform effectively
when the motivational climate is right
when the training programme is interesting and varied
MOTIVATION IS REDUCED BY
routine
competition between motives
PEOPLE
have multiple motives
share motives
have unique motivational profiles
need variation in training and competition
need variation in intensity and competitiveness
need structured coaching and teaching environments
MOTIVES CHANGE OVER TIME
TEACHERS AND COACHES ARE IMPORTANT MOTIVATORS

20. ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION
the drive to achieve success for its own sake
related to
competitiveness
persistence
striving for perfection
influenced by
personality factors
need to achieve
need to avoid failure
situational factors
probability of success
incentive value of success
NEED TO ACHIEVE (NACH)
Tendency to approach success (Ts)
this personality type likes a challenge
likes feedback
is not afraid of failure
has high task persistence
NEED TO AVOID FAILURE (NAF)
Tendency to avoid failure (Taf)
this personality type avoids challenges
does not take risks
often gives up
does not want feedback
(Atkinson and McClelland)

21. ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION - PERSONALITY COMPONENTS
someone with a high need to achieve
will probably have a low need to avoid failure
will choose difficult or demanding tasks which are more risky
the hard route up a rock face
B =
someone with a high need to avoid failure
will probably have a low need to achieve
will choose tasks which are less risky and more easily achieved
the easy route up the rock face

22. ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION - SITUATIONAL FACTORS
probability of success low
(competing against the world champion)
therefore strive very hard to win
(incentive high)
(will be highly chuffed if win)
B =
probability of success high
(competing in local club match)
therefore don’t need to try as hard to win
(incentive low)
(and expect to win easily)
(not so pleasing)

23. MOTIVATION AND GOAL SETTING
Achievement Motivation
MOTIVATION AND GOAL SETTING
GOAL STRUCTURE
easily attained initially
progressively more difficult
training goals should be planned around overall goals
short-term / medium-term / long-term
goal setting as a means of managing anxiety / stress
goal setting to increase motivation
GOALS ARE EITHER
OUTCOME ORIENTED
towards the end result of the sporting activity
example : to win a race
TASK ORIENTED
performance oriented
judged against other performances
example : to beat best time
process oriented
improvement in techniques

24. MOTIVATION AND GOAL SETTING
Achievement Motivation
MOTIVATION AND GOAL SETTING
TO ENHANCE MOTIVATION, GOALS SHOULD BE
stated positively
specific to the situation and the performer
time phased
challenging
achievable - achievement would enhance self-efficacy at the sporting task
measurable
negotiated between sportsperson and coach
progressive, from short-term to long-term
performance / task oriented rather than outcome oriented
written down
reviewed regularly (with downward adjustment if necessary - in the case of injury)

25. ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION
WHAT SHOULD THE COACH DO?
IMPROVE NEED AND MOTIVE TO ACHIEVE (Nach)
increase positive reinforcement hence increasing pride and satisfaction
ensure that goals are achievable
ensure that at least some situations guarantee success
and subsequently gradually increase task difficulty in line with progress
ensure that tasks are challenging
ensure that the probability of success is good
ensure that the incentive value of the success is high (is the race worth winning?)
REDUCE TENDENCY AND MOTIVE TO AVOID FAILURE (NaF)
reduce punishment hence lowering the chance of performer worrying about failure
focus negative feedback on effort rather than ability
this avoids the performer tending to believe that causes of failure are internal (due to lack of ability for example)
and reduces the risk of learned helplessness (see next slide)
avoid situations where defeat / failure is inevitable (such as performing against a much superior opponent)
if this is not possible alter the criteria for success (you will have succeeded if you only lose by 2 goals)

26. ATTITUDES IN SPORT ATTITUDES
a combination of beliefs and feelings about :
objects
people
situations
(called attitude objects)
this predisposes us to behave in a certain way towards them
learned or organised through experience
evaluative
they lead us to think and behave positively or negatively
about an attitude object
tend to be deep seated
and enduring
but can change or be changed

27. FORMATION OF ATTITUDES

28. COMPONENTS OF ATTITUDE - THE TRIADIC MODEL
Attitudes
COMPONENTS OF ATTITUDE - THE TRIADIC MODEL

29. MEASUREMENT OF ATTITUDES
BY OBSERVATION
related to actual events as they are happening
difficult to quantify or measure
open to interpretation by observer
USING PHYSIOLOGICAL TESTS
indicators such as
blood pressure
skin conductivity
brain activity (ECG)
can be interpreted to indicate telling the truth
about an attitude object
measurable
independent of observer
but takes a long time to set up requiring special apparatus
QUESTIONNAIRES
only as good as the questions asked
measurable using
Thurstone scale
Likert scale
Osgood’s Semantic Differential Scale

30. PREJUDICE AND SPORT STEREOTYPES
Attitudes
PREJUDICE AND SPORT STEREOTYPES
PREJUDICE
a prejudgement of a person, group, or situation
usually based on inadequate information
or inaccurate or biased information
which reinforces stereotypes
example :
women are often excluded from male dominated sports clubs or events
NEGATIVE STEREOTYPES
women in strength, endurance and contact sports
participation of the disabled in physical activity
older age groups interest and ability at sport
participation of particular ethnic groups in specific sports or positions within teams
examples :
the black quarterback in American Football
the black sprinter
the white skier / swimmer

31. POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE ATTITUDES TO SPORT
POSITIVE ATTITUDES
has a positive physical self-concept
satisfaction from participation in sport
believe sport promotes health
success at sport
willing to try new activities
encouraged by significant others
participates regularly
opportunity to participate
NEGATIVE ATTITUDES
had negative experiences at sport
have lifestyle which makes regular sport difficult
find sport frustrating
lack encouragement
unlikely to participate in sport
have a negative self concept
find sport boring

32. ATTITUDE CHANGE BY PERSUASION AND COGNITIVE DISSONANCE
Attitudes
ATTITUDE CHANGE BY PERSUASION AND COGNITIVE DISSONANCE
PERSUASIVE COMMUNICATION
the person must
pay attention
understand
accept
retain
the message being given
the coach must
be expert
be trustworthy
the message must
be clear
be unambiguous
be balanced between emotion and logic
be balanced between pros and cons
COGNITIVE DISSONANCE
the person must
be consistent between
cognitive
affective
behavioural components
the person must be consistent between different elements
cognitive dissonance occurs hence attitudes must change
if two factual elements of attitude conflict
example : the smoker who knows that smoking is bad for health

33. AGGRESSION IN SPORT ASSERTION sometimes called CHANNELLED AGGRESSION
no intent to harm
legitimate force within the rules
unusual effort
unusual energy
HOSTILE AGGRESSION
intent to harm
goal is to harm
arousal and anger involved
INSTRUMENTAL AGGRESSION
goal to win
used as a tactic ‘dirty play’
no anger
illegal in all sports except boxing

34. CAUSES OF AGGRESSION PHYSIOLOGICAL AROUSAL
anger towards another person
causing an increase in arousal
highly motivated
UNDERDEVELOPED MORAL REASONING
players with low levels of moral reasoning
more likely to be aggressive
BRACKETED MORALITY
double standard
condoning aggressive behaviour may retard players’ moral development
‘aggression is wrong in life, but OK in sport’
SPECIFIC CAUSES
high environmental temperature
home or away
embarrassment
losing
pain
unfair officiating
playing below capability
large score difference
low league standing
later stage of play (near the end of a game)
reputation of opposition (get your retaliation in first)

35. THEORIES OF AGGRESSION
INSTINCT THEORY
aggression is innate and instinctive
caused by survival of the species
sport releases built up aggression, catharsis
Lorentz
FRUSTRATION AGGRESSION THEORY
aggression caused by frustration
the person being blocked in the achievement of a goal
this causes a drive towards the source of frustration
Dollard
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
aggression is learned
by observation of other’s behaviour
then imitation of this aggressive behaviour
this is then reinforced by social acceptance of the behaviour
Bandura
AGGRESSIVE CUE HYPOTHESIS
frustration causes anger and arousal
this creates a readiness for aggression
which can be initiated by an incident during the performance (the cue)
this is a learned response
example : a player sees a colleague fouled then decides to join in
Berkowitz

36. SPECTATOR AGGRESSION SPECTATOR AGGRESSION caused by player aggression
poor or biased officials
alcohol
racial or national abuse
adult male crowd
SUPPORTERS can help prevent aggression by
avoid showing aggression
avoid advocating aggression

37. RESPONSIBILITY FOR AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOUR
Aggression
RESPONSIBILITY FOR AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOUR

38. PREVENTION OF AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOUR
Aggression
PREVENTION OF AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOUR
GOVERNING BODY
code of conduct
coaches
players
officials
use of strong officials
use of rules of games
punishment (remove league points)
sin bins
reward non-aggressive acts (FIFA fair play award)
use of language
reduce media sensationalism
coach education programme

39. PREVENTION OF AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOUR
Aggression
PREVENTION OF AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOUR
COACHES / PLAYERS
promote ethical behaviour
stress that each individual has a responsibility for reducing aggression
promote sporting behaviour
use role models with none aggressive methods
control aggressive behaviour
stress management strategies / relaxation techniques
self control strategies
reduce levels of arousal
maintain a healthy will to win without winning being everything
set task / performance goals rather than outcome goals
remove players from field if at risk of aggression
enable channelling of aggression towards a performance goal
use peer pressure ‘avoid letting the side down’
stress group responsibility for eliminating aggression