1. MIS (Management Information System)
Sharif University of Technology
Session # 5

2. Session schedule Contents Systems Analysis and Design
Planning the approach
Asking questions and collecting data
Recording the information
Interpreting the information collected
Specifying the requirement
Sharif University of Technology
MIS (Management Information System), Session # 5 2

3. Information system development
System Analysis
Five areas of a system analyst tasks:
Investigation
Communication with customers
Documentation
Understanding
Preparation & planning
Sharif University of Technology
MIS (Management Information System), Session # 5 3

4. Information system development
System Analysis
System analysis process:
The PARIS Model
Analysis can be considered to be a Five-stage process
Planning the approach
Asking questions and collecting data
Recording the information
Interpreting the information collected
Specifying the requirement
We have divided the process of analysis into five stages, each of which will be
described in detail in subsequent chapters. The first letters of each step form the
five-letter word PARIS, which is a useful mnemonic to help you remember the
steps. The five steps are:
1 Planning the approach
This is the vital first stage in the PARIS model, and the success of the systems
analysis phase of a project will depend on the thoroughness and care with which
planning is carried out. During planning, objectives are set, constraints identified,
terms of reference agreed, and preparations made for fact finding. Planning
is described in Chapter 7, which also includes a section on the feasibility study.
2 Asking questions and collecting data
This includes all the fact-finding activities carried out as part of the analysis.
The key technique here is interviewing, which applies many of the principles
introduced in Chapter 3 on communication. Interviewing is described in detail
in Chapter 8 under three headings – planning, conducting, and recording the
interview – and there is also a section on difficult interviews. Other fact-finding
methods described in Chapter 8 include observation, designing and sending
out questionnaires, document analysis and record searching.
3 Recording the information
The third stage in the model is about recording information. The fact-finding
methods, used during stage 2, yield many facts and details about the current and
required systems. This information must then be recorded in a clear and unambiguous
way. In structured systems analysis, a series of diagrams – or models –
are drawn to represent the system, and these can be interpreted and built on by
the analysis team, and may also be reviewed by the user to check that the information
gathered by the analyst is complete and correct. Chapter 9 introduces two
important models that are used to document the current system: the data flow diagram
and the data model. Both are part of all structured methods, but we shall be
concentrating on the way they are implemented in SSADM to explain how they
are constructed and interpreted.
4 Interpreting the information collected
Having documented the current physical system, we need to understand the
underlying logical system, and then consider how the client’s requirements can
be built in. Again, diagrams can be used to help analysts through this stage of
the PARIS model, and Chapter 11 describes some techniques that can be used.
5 Specifying the requirement
The final stage in the model, specifying the requirement, is described in detail in
Chapter 12. This involves the analyst in preparing a number of options, based on
the models constructed earlier, for the development of the new system. These
options are discussed with the client, costed, and then presented in a way that
emphasises the benefits they will bring to the client’s business. The analyst,
during this stage, will usually be involved in writing a report, and in preparing
and delivering a presentation. Once a decision has been made by the client on
the way forward, a detailed functional specification will be prepared so that the
designers will know exactly what the system has to do to meet the requirements.s
Sharif University of Technology
MIS (Management Information System), Session # 5 4

5. Information system development
System Analysis (Planning the approach)
Understanding the objectives and terms of reference
The main areas included in the terms of reference(SCOPE):
System boundary.
Constraints.
Objectives.
Permission.
End products.
The stated objectives of the client will usually be recorded in the terms of reference.
These will have been agreed with the client before the start of analysis,
and should define the scope of the investigation about to be undertaken. Indeed,
the word SCOPE provides a useful mnemonic, which we can use to summarise
the main areas included in the terms of reference.
• System boundary. This will define the area of the organisation under
investigation and may also specify the limit of any new system implemented
as a result of the project.
• Constraints. Factors, including budget, timescale and technology, which may
restrict the study, or the solution, in some way. These constraints will be
considered in more detail later in this chapter.
• Objectives. An unambiguous statement of the expectations of those in the
client’s organisation who have initiated the project. These may be broken
down by function or department. Well-defined objectives are clear and
measurable.
• Permission. This will indicate who in the client’s organisation is responsible
for the supervision of the project and, if permission needs to be granted – for
example to extend the scope of the analysis – who has the authority to do so.
Points of contact and the appropriate reporting structure may also be
defined.
• End products. A description of the deliverable or end products of the
investigation. This will usually take the form of a written report and a
supporting presentation to managers of the client organisation.
Sharif University of Technology
MIS (Management Information System), Session # 5 5

6. Information system development
System Analysis (Planning the approach)
Understanding the objectives and terms of reference
The main areas included in the terms of reference(SCOPE):
Constraints (customer):
Technology
Environment
Timescales
Budget
Scope
Terms of reference have been agreed with the client. The objectives of the analysis
phase are clear. Now it is essential that all constraints on the analysis are
understood early in order to help with planning and to avoid problems arising
during detailed analysis. Some constraints may have been set by the customer,
which will limit the options that can be presented as part of the system proposals.
They are illustrated in Figure 7.1.
These constraints will probably be included in the terms of reference, and
cover:
• Technology. The customer may be committed to a particular hardware or
software solution. Indeed, there may be a corporate strategy in this area. For
example, they may require any new system to run on their present mainframe
computer, or to be developed using specified software such as Oracle – in
order that it can be integrated with existing systems.
Environment. The system may have to work in exceptional conditions, for
example in a missile, in a submarine, on a factory floor or on a customer’s
doorstep. The system may be used by skilled or unskilled operators, perhaps
by operators wearing protective clothing.
• Timescales. Project delivery times based on the customer’s immovable
timescales may also be specified. These could in turn be determined by the
introduction of new government legislation or by a key date in the business
cycle of the client’s organisation.
• Budget. If the work is to be done by a systems house, the contract may
well be a fixed-price one. This poses real problems for the analysts on the
development team. How much resource is committed to the analysis phase?
What other budget constraints exist? For example, how much money is
available for the purchase of new hardware or software, and are there any
limitations on the annual operation budget?
• Scope. What is the area under investigation in this project? What is the
boundary of the system? Which parts of the organisation are off limits?
All of these factors will constrain any solution presented by the analysis team.
But there is also another set of constraints that need to be identified by the
analyst early on, because these will limit the way in which the investigation is
conducted. These will include the areas shown in Figure 7.2.
These constraints, which are listed below, will enable the analysis team to
determine which fact-finding methods are most appropriate, as well as help
them to put together a detailed plan for the investigation.
Sharif University of Technology
MIS (Management Information System), Session # 5 6

7. Information system development
System Analysis (Planning the approach)
Understanding the objectives and terms of reference
The main areas included in the terms of reference(SCOPE):
Constraints (analyst investigation):
The project resources available during the
analysis
The availability of customer contacts
The political issues important in the customer’s organization
The complexity and size of the organization
The project management procedures used by the project team
Communication procedures
All of these factors will constrain any solution presented by the analysis team.
But there is also another set of constraints that need to be identified by the
analyst early on, because these will limit the way in which the investigation is
conducted. These will include the areas shown in Figure 7.2.
These constraints, which are listed below, will enable the analysis team to
determine which fact-finding methods are most appropriate, as well as help
them to put together a detailed plan for the investigation.
• The project resources available during the analysis. How much support will be
available to the analysis team? For example, will CASE tools be available for
producing documentation? Will there be administrative support from the
project office? Are there colleagues who have worked with the client before
who would be available to give advice to the team?
• The availability of customer contacts. It is important to know whether
appropriate staff will be available for discussion and to review analysis
products. For example, an organisation might require that all interviewees be
given three days’ notice, or that review meetings involving client staff cannot
be held on any Monday or Friday.
• The political issues important in the customer’s organisation. There may be
politically sensitive issues in the organisation that an analyst should be aware
of before embarking on the investigation. For example, the introduction of a
new computer system might mean that fewer employees are needed to do the
work, or that one department will have to close down. In this case, the analyst
should be clear about whether the staff to be interviewed are aware of the
implications of the change, and what line should be taken if difficult questions
are asked.
• The complexity and size of the organisation. This will influence the choice of
fact-finding techniques, and could mean that sampling methods have to be
used. If, as part of an investigation you are undertaking, you need to collect
information from all parts of a large organisation, a number of options are
available, including:
– interviewing everyone;
– sending out questionnaires;
– interviewing a representative sample.
It is important that the implications, costs and benefits of the alternatives are
understood and discussed with the client.
• The project management procedures used by the project team. An analyst will need
to be aware of the expectations of the client organisation with regard to the
management of the analysis phase of the project. It might be, for example, that
the client organisation uses a structured approach to project management such
as PRINCE2, or the client may require the team to give detailed information
about the planning and monitoring techniques to be used during the analysis
phase of the project.
• Communication procedures. It is important that the analyst is aware of, and
follows, the communication procedures set up within the project team and
between the project team and the client. This may involve agreement on
appropriate channels of communication and the identification of named
individuals as ‘contacts’.
Business analysis techniques – described in Chapter 12 – offer some tools for
dealing with these issues.
Sharif University of Technology
MIS (Management Information System), Session # 5 7

8. Information system development
System Analysis
Asking Questions and Collecting Data
In carrying out your investigation you will be collecting information about the current system,
Recording the problems and requirements described by users of the current system, a picture of the required system is built.
Details of inputs to and outputs from the system;
How information is stored;
Volumes and frequencies of data;
Any trends that can be identified;
Specific problems, with examples if possible, that are experienced by users.
You
should now be ready to begin asking questions, and, as a result of your planning,
these questions will be relevant, focused and appropriate.
In carrying out your investigation you will be collecting information about the
current system, and, by recording the problems and requirements described
by users of the current system, building up a picture of the required system. The
facts gathered from each part of the client’s organisation will be concerned primarily
with the current system and how it operates, and will include some or all
of the following: details of inputs to and outputs from the system; how information
is stored; volumes and frequencies of data; any trends that can be identified;
and specific problems, with examples if possible, that are experienced by users.
In addition, you may also be able to gather useful information about:
Sharif University of Technology
MIS (Management Information System), Session # 5 8

9. Information system development
System Analysis
Asking Questions and Collecting Data
In order to collect this data and related information, a range of fact-finding methods can be used
Interviewing,
Questionnaires,
Observation ,
Searching records and document analysis
In order to collect this data and related information, a range of fact-finding
methods can be used. Those most commonly used include interviewing, questionnaires,
observation, searching records and document analysis. Each of these
methods is described in this chapter, but it is important to remember that they
are not mutually exclusive. More than one method may be used during a factfinding
session: for example, during a fact-finding interview a questionnaire may
be completed, records inspected and documents analysed.
Sharif University of Technology
MIS (Management Information System), Session # 5 9

10. Information system development
System Analysis
Asking Questions and Collecting Data (Fact-finding Interviews)
An interview can be defined as ‘a conversation with a specific purpose’.
An interview is a form of two-way communication that requires a range of interpersonal skills to be used by the interviewer to ensure that the purpose is achieved.
In describing this fact-finding technique we shall look at three stages:
Planning,
Conducting and
Recording the interview.
An interview can be defined as ‘a conversation with a specific purpose’. This
purpose could be selection in a recruitment interview, counselling in a performance
appraisal interview, or collecting information in a fact-finding interview.
An interview is a form of two-way communication that requires a range of
interpersonal skills to be used by the interviewer to ensure that the purpose
is achieved. The interviewer will need to be a good listener, to be skilful in
the use of questions so that the conversation flows smoothly, and to be able
to control the interview while building and maintaining rapport with the
interviewee. In a fact-finding interview these skills are needed to collect and
record information in order to build up a picture of the current system, and
to catalogue the requirements for a new one. In describing this fact-finding
technique we shall look at three stages: planning, conducting and recording the
interview.
Sharif University of Technology
MIS (Management Information System), Session # 5 10

11. Information system development
System Analysis
Asking Questions and Collecting Data (Fact-finding Interviews)- Planning
Most fact-finding interviews follow a similar structure
Social chat
An interview begins with a casual, friendly opening to create a relaxed atmosphere
and put interviewees at their ease. This is an opportunity to reassure
the interviewee, who might be feeling nervous, as well as calming any nerves
of your own. During this stage you can give the interviewee some background
information about the reasons for the investigation and answer any questions
they have. The early minutes of an interview are critical in building rapport
with the interviewee and making it feel more like a conversation and less like an
interrogation.
Overview
Having created a relaxed atmosphere in the first stage of the interview, you
now move on to outline what will happen next. In effect you are ‘signposting’
the various parts of the interview, and it is usually helpful at this point to have
the agenda visible to both parties. During this overview you can also explain the
objectives of the interview, the time you will need, and the main topics to be
covered, as well as asking for the interviewee’s permission to take notes.
Sharif University of Technology
MIS (Management Information System), Session # 5 11

12. Information system development
System Analysis
Asking Questions and Collecting Data (Fact-finding Interviews) - Planning
Most fact-finding interviews follow a similar structure
Social chat
An interview begins with a casual, friendly opening to create a relaxed atmosphere and put interviewees at their ease.
Overview
Having created a relaxed atmosphere in the first stage of the interview, you
now move on to outline what will happen next.
Social chat
An interview begins with a casual, friendly opening to create a relaxed atmosphere
and put interviewees at their ease. This is an opportunity to reassure
the interviewee, who might be feeling nervous, as well as calming any nerves
of your own. During this stage you can give the interviewee some background
information about the reasons for the investigation and answer any questions
they have. The early minutes of an interview are critical in building rapport
with the interviewee and making it feel more like a conversation and less like an
interrogation.
Overview
Having created a relaxed atmosphere in the first stage of the interview, you
now move on to outline what will happen next. In effect you are ‘signposting’
the various parts of the interview, and it is usually helpful at this point to have
the agenda visible to both parties. During this overview you can also explain the
objectives of the interview, the time you will need, and the main topics to be
covered, as well as asking for the interviewee’s permission to take notes.
Sharif University of Technology
MIS (Management Information System), Session # 5 12

13. Information system development
System Analysis
Asking Questions and Collecting Data (Fact-finding Interviews) - Planning
There are four steps in questioning through the fact-finding process and providing information about the user’s problems and requirements
Questions and answers
This is the fact-finding part of the interview. In this stage you ask questions to
find out as much as possible about the interviewee and their role in the organisation.
By listening carefully to the answers, making notes and checking understanding
of the information collected, a lot of useful information can be gathered.
It is important to keep control and direct the interview during this stage to
ensure your objectives – both active and passive – are met. It is also important to
maintain the rapport, remembering that you are not there to evaluate the interviewee
but to hear their views.
A useful model for structuring the questions and answers stage of the interview
is shown in Figure 8.2. As you can see, there are four steps in this questioning
model, designed to guide the analyst through the fact-finding process and
provide information about the user’s problems and requirements.
In conducting an interview, the questions should initially be at a high level
so information is gathered about the background and work environment of the
interviewee (user) within the organisation. These are called context questions, and
often contain the words ‘tell’, ‘explain’ or ‘describe’. For example:
‘Can you describe your main responsibilities as sales manager?’ ‘Take me
through a typical day in this office.’ ‘Will you explain this department’s role in
the organisation?’ ‘Tell me about the main stages in the bookings cycle.’
The context questions are followed by a set of detailed questions, which enable
you to obtain specific information about the areas explored in step one. This
information will usually include facts and figures that indicate volumes as well
as operational peaks and troughs. For example:
‘You mentioned a problem that occurred last February – can you say more
about that?’ ‘On average, how may invoices would be processed each month?’
‘You said that the current procedures cause difficulties for your staff – what
sort of difficulties?’ ‘Which months in the year are the busiest for you?’ ‘Do
you have examples of the documents you’re describing?’
The context and detailed questions should help you to understand the current
system and enable you to identify the nature and cause of specific problems.
Once problems have been identified, you should ask further questions to find
out what effects the interviewee believes each problem has on the organisation
and, more specifically, on their area of responsibility:
‘So what effect does this problem have on your work?’ ‘Can you give me examples
of the sort of comments that members of staff in your area have made
about the current purchasing system?’ ‘. . . and when the orders are held up in
Keith Smith’s section, what is the impact of that in your section?’
The fourth step, which can take place alongside step three, is to explore the user’s
views about the solution to a problem and to find out what the user needs to correct
the problem. It is important during fact-finding to discover what the user’s
real needs are, so that any solution developed will be efficient and effective:
‘In your opinion, what steps could be taken to solve this problem?’ ‘If you had
a free hand to make changes, how would you improve the system?’ ‘Which of
the requirements you’ve described is the most important for the business at
the moment?’ ‘What is the single most important change that would make life
easier in this department?’
An appreciation of effects and needs, from the point of view of the user, will
enable you to identify the user’s requirements.
Sharif University of Technology
MIS (Management Information System), Session # 5 13

14. Information system development
System Analysis
Asking Questions and Collecting Data (Fact-finding Interviews)
The key fact-finding objectives – ‘must find out’ – form
the trunk of the tree.
We can leave the trunk and go down the branches to get supporting information – ‘should find out’ – which will provide additional information about the key areas.
The saw in the diagram is a reminder that the agenda might have to be pruned if the available time is used up.
The key fact-finding objectives – ‘must find out’ – form the trunk of the tree.
From these, an agenda can be prepared listing these areas as main headings. We
can leave the trunk and go down the branches to get supporting information –
‘should find out’ – which will provide additional information about the key
areas. The leaves provide the final level of questioning – ‘could find out’ – representing
detailed questions about specific areas within the list of objectives.
Having travelled out to the leaves to collect the detail, we can return to our main
objectives on the trunk of the tree, and so avoid the danger of ‘falling off’ the tree
by getting lost in details and losing sight of the main purpose of the interview.
The saw in the diagram is a reminder that the agenda might have to be pruned if
the available time is used up. Such pruning should enable the interview to be
properly closed and a second interview to be arranged.
Sharif University of Technology
MIS (Management Information System), Session # 5 14

15. Information system development
System Analysis
Asking Questions and Collecting Data (Fact-finding Interviews) - Planning
Sharif University of Technology
MIS (Management Information System), Session # 5 15

16. Information system development
System Analysis
Asking Questions and Collecting Data (Fact-finding Interviews) - Conducting the Interview
In this section, we’ll discuss two key skills
Listening and
Questioning
as well as the important issue of
Control
In this section, we’ll discuss two key
skills – listening and questioning – as well as the important issue of control
Sharif University of Technology
MIS (Management Information System), Session # 5 16

17. Information system development
System Analysis
Asking Questions and Collecting Data (Fact-finding Interviews) - Conducting the Interview
Listening
To be effective listeners, analysts need to work on developing their skills in this area as well as on adopting an open, receptive attitude when engaged in listening.
‘Active’ listening has been defined as a set of techniques through which one person can obtain information from another.
It involves the listener communicating their interest and their understanding to the speaker, encouraging them to continue, and giving them the opportunity to talk without constant interruption
As we pointed out in Chapter 3, listening is an essential component of any effective
face-to-face communication. It is at the heart of the process of interviewing,
and the quality of the information gathered by analysts depends to a large extent
on the effectiveness of their listening. An effective listener will not only encourage
the interviewee to provide them with clear and accurate information, but will
also understand much more of what they hear. This said, listening is not a welldeveloped
skill for most people. Although we are taught in school to read and
write, few of us have been formally taught to listen. Being an effective listener
means: not being switched off just because the other person is not clear or concise;
not reacting emotionally; not letting the other person’s mannerisms distract
you; keeping an open mind until the other person has completely finished; being
patient with slow and ponderous speakers; and trying not to interrupt.
To be effective listeners, analysts need to work on developing their skills
in this area as well as on adopting an open, receptive attitude when engaged
in listening. We shall deal first with the skills, described in Chapter 3 as active
listening, and then go on to discuss attitude and the blocks to effective listening.
Sharif University of Technology
MIS (Management Information System), Session # 5 17

18. Information system development
System Analysis
Asking Questions and Collecting Data (Fact-finding Interviews) - Conducting the Interview
Questioning
Asking the appropriate question to obtain the information required is a technique which is central to fact-finding interviewing.
Different types of question elicit different types of response and are, therefore, used for different purposes.
The other key interpersonal skill that needs to be put into practice by the analyst
during fact-finding interviewing is questioning. Asking the appropriate question
to obtain the information required is a technique that has many other
applications and which is central to fact-finding interviewing. As we shall see
later, it is also an important technique to use when designing questionnaires,
another means of collecting data during systems analysis.
Different types of question elicit different types of response and are, therefore,
used for different purposes. A selection of question types are described below:
• Closed questions. Closed questions close down the conversation. They produce
a definite ‘yes’ or ‘no’, or sometimes ‘perhaps’, and can help to control the
talkative interviewee. They are also useful for checking and clarifying facts.
For example, ‘can you ?’, ‘will you ?’, ‘have you ?’, ‘is it ?’.
• Open questions. Open questions, on the other hand, open up the conversation.
They are used to obtain information, provide insight into a client’s feelings
and motivations, and encourage the quiet interviewee to relax and be more
forthcoming. For example, ‘tell me . . .’, ‘please explain . . .’, ‘could you
describe ?’, ‘how is your purchasing organised?’, ‘what is your opinion
of ?’
• Probing questions. As the name suggests, these questions are used to obtain
more detail to probe further when a previous question has not yielded
sufficient information. For example, ‘why?’, ‘please could you tell me
more about ?’
• Probing techniques. These include planned pauses, periods of silence, or an
unfinished sentence. These are more subtle, and often more powerful, ways
of probing, which can be used instead of, or in conjunction with, probing
questions.
• Reflective questions. This involves repeating a key word or phrase to encourage
the speaker to say more about it. For example, ‘difficulties?’, ‘a significant
number?’ Used as described, reflective questions act as probes to elicit more
information. They can also be used to demonstrate active listening when they
reflect not a key word but an unspoken message or feeling. For example,
‘it sounds like the new system is really causing you a problem’, ‘you seem
very pleased about that . . .’.
• Limited-choice questions. The objective here is to direct the other person’s
attention to a range of options, while leaving them with the final choice of
answer. For example: ‘Which of these three courses of action is most
suitable ?’ ‘Is your busiest time in April or in September?’
• Leading questions. Leading questions imply the correct answer. Examples:
‘Would you agree that ?’, ‘Don’t you feel that ?, ‘So all your problems
result from the introduction of these new procedures?’ They can be useful in
confirming information, but the danger is that the interviewee will agree
because this is the easiest option. They should be used sparingly, if at all, and
are usually better framed as a different question. Another danger, if they are
used too often, is that the interviewer can appear pushy and irritating.
• Link questions. For example: ‘In view of what you have just said about the
importance of credit terms, how important are delivery times?’, ‘The point
you’ve just made about customers leads me to another question: how do new
customers appear on the system?’ Link questions like these are excellent for
steering the discussion from one topic to another while allowing the other
person to do most of the talking.
Putting questions together to take the interviewee through a particular area is
another part of interviewing that the analyst should address. The sequence of
questions asked during an interview can be critical in the successful achievement
of objectives. One useful model in building a sequence of questions is the funnel
that is illustrated in Figure 8.4. In this model, the interview begins with open
questions at the wide end of the funnel, followed by probing questions to focus
on specific points raised in response to the open questions. These are followed by
closed questions to obtain factual data and lastly by summarising to check that
the facts collected are correct.
Sharif University of Technology
MIS (Management Information System), Session # 5 18

19. Information system development
System Analysis
Asking Questions and Collecting Data (Fact-finding Interviews) - Conducting the Interview
Questioning- types of questions
Closed questions
Leading questions
Open questions
Link questions
Probing questions
Probing techniques
Reflection questions
Limited choice questions
The other key interpersonal skill that needs to be put into practice by the analyst
during fact-finding interviewing is questioning. Asking the appropriate question
to obtain the information required is a technique that has many other
applications and which is central to fact-finding interviewing. As we shall see
later, it is also an important technique to use when designing questionnaires,
another means of collecting data during systems analysis.
Different types of question elicit different types of response and are, therefore,
used for different purposes. A selection of question types are described below:
• Closed questions. Closed questions close down the conversation. They produce
a definite ‘yes’ or ‘no’, or sometimes ‘perhaps’, and can help to control the
talkative interviewee. They are also useful for checking and clarifying facts.
For example, ‘can you ?’, ‘will you ?’, ‘have you ?’, ‘is it ?’.
• Open questions. Open questions, on the other hand, open up the conversation.
They are used to obtain information, provide insight into a client’s feelings
and motivations, and encourage the quiet interviewee to relax and be more
forthcoming. For example, ‘tell me . . .’, ‘please explain . . .’, ‘could you
describe ?’, ‘how is your purchasing organised?’, ‘what is your opinion
of ?’
• Probing questions. As the name suggests, these questions are used to obtain
more detail to probe further when a previous question has not yielded
sufficient information. For example, ‘why?’, ‘please could you tell me
more about ?’
• Probing techniques. These include planned pauses, periods of silence, or an
unfinished sentence. These are more subtle, and often more powerful, ways
of probing, which can be used instead of, or in conjunction with, probing
questions.
• Reflective questions. This involves repeating a key word or phrase to encourage
the speaker to say more about it. For example, ‘difficulties?’, ‘a significant
number?’ Used as described, reflective questions act as probes to elicit more
information. They can also be used to demonstrate active listening when they
reflect not a key word but an unspoken message or feeling. For example,
‘it sounds like the new system is really causing you a problem’, ‘you seem
very pleased about that . . .’.
• Limited-choice questions. The objective here is to direct the other person’s
attention to a range of options, while leaving them with the final choice of
answer. For example: ‘Which of these three courses of action is most
suitable ?’ ‘Is your busiest time in April or in September?’
• Leading questions. Leading questions imply the correct answer. Examples:
‘Would you agree that ?’, ‘Don’t you feel that ?, ‘So all your problems
result from the introduction of these new procedures?’ They can be useful in
confirming information, but the danger is that the interviewee will agree
because this is the easiest option. They should be used sparingly, if at all, and
are usually better framed as a different question. Another danger, if they are
used too often, is that the interviewer can appear pushy and irritating.
• Link questions. For example: ‘In view of what you have just said about the
importance of credit terms, how important are delivery times?’, ‘The point
you’ve just made about customers leads me to another question: how do new
customers appear on the system?’ Link questions like these are excellent for
steering the discussion from one topic to another while allowing the other
person to do most of the talking.
Putting questions together to take the interviewee through a particular area is
another part of interviewing that the analyst should address. The sequence of
questions asked during an interview can be critical in the successful achievement
of objectives. One useful model in building a sequence of questions is the funnel
that is illustrated in Figure 8.4. In this model, the interview begins with open
questions at the wide end of the funnel, followed by probing questions to focus
on specific points raised in response to the open questions. These are followed by
closed questions to obtain factual data and lastly by summarising to check that
the facts collected are correct.
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20. Information system development
System Analysis
Asking Questions and Collecting Data (Fact-finding Interviews) - Conducting the Interview
Questioning- types of questions
Putting questions together to take the interviewee through a particular area is
another part of interviewing that the analyst should address. The sequence of
questions asked during an interview can be critical in the successful achievement
of objectives. One useful model in building a sequence of questions is the funnel
that is illustrated in Figure 8.4. In this model, the interview begins with open
questions at the wide end of the funnel, followed by probing questions to focus
on specific points raised in response to the open questions. These are followed by
closed questions to obtain factual data and lastly by summarising to check that
the facts collected are correct.
Sharif University of Technology
MIS (Management Information System), Session # 5 20

21. Information system development
System Analysis
Asking Questions and Collecting Data (Fact-finding Interviews) - Conducting the Interview
Control
Signposting
Confirming
Summarizing
Note-taking
Listening
Pausing
It is important to remember that, however much you open up the interview during
questioning, you, as the interviewer, must always be in control of the process.
Guiding conversations by using the right questions is one way of maintaining
this control. Other controlling techniques include:
• Signposting. Giving the interviewee an idea of the path you are planning to
take and therefore the reason for your questions. An agenda is very useful,
and can be used to bring the interview back on course if control begins to
slip away.
• Confirming. Restating or repeating the interviewee’s statement to ensure that
you have clearly and correctly received their message.
• Summarising. Consolidating what has been covered in the discussion;
clarifying and checking for understanding.
• Note-taking. Memory is fallible; recorded notes are less so. It is a compliment
to the client to demonstrate a desire to be accurate, and note-taking can also
be useful in controlling the interview by giving the analyst some thinking
time during the interview.
• Listening. As well as being a useful skill in its own right, listening is one of the
best methods of maintaining control of the interview. By showing that you
are involved and interested in the discussion, through the correct use of eyes,
body, head and voice, you are confirming to the interviewee that he or she is
the most important person to you at that moment. If, in addition to this, you
are concentrating hard on what is being said, it is much easier to find a point
at which to enter the discussion and then move it on to the next ‘branch’ of the
‘tree’ – the next topic on your agenda – without antagonising the interviewee.
• Pausing. A well-placed pause or silence is a good way of keeping control and
allowing you to decide the next step. Silence will also often encourage a quiet
person to provide more information.
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22. Information system development
System Analysis
Asking Questions and Collecting Data (Fact-finding Interviews) - Recording the interview
No matter how skilled the interviewer, or how good their questioning and listening, the interview is likely to be less than successful if the recording techniques are incomplete or inappropriate
A graphical technique can simplify the capture of this sort of information, but to be effective it must be simple and quick to use, and be easily understood by the interviewee so it can be checked for accuracy
The other recording task after the interview, although this one is not so urgent, is to prepare a formal record of it.
It is the official record of the interview, which can be accessed by others on the project
It is a document that can be checked by the interviewee to make sure it is accurate.
Having looked at planning and conducting a fact-finding interview, we now turn
to the subject of how to record it. This is an area that is particularly important
when asking questions, as the record of the answers given will form the basis for
constructing models of the system. No matter how skilled the interviewer, or
how good their questioning and listening, the interview is likely to be less than
successful if the recording techniques are incomplete or inappropriate. Often
interviewers comment on how difficult it is to develop a recording technique
that is easy to use, unobtrusive during the interview, non-threatening to the
interviewee, and understandable after the interview.
Many fact-finding interviews result in the interviewee describing a lot of
complex procedural details, and it can be difficult to capture this information
unambiguously. A graphical technique can simplify the capture of this sort of
information, but to be effective it must be simple and quick to use, and be easily
understood by the interviewee so it can be checked for accuracy. For example, a
mind map can be used to record information. This consists of a central idea, or
topic, enclosed in a circle with related topics radiating out from the circle. The
data flow diagram, which provides a pictorial view of how data moves around
an information system, is another recording technique that has been used effectively
by many analysts. It is described in the next chapter.
Sharif University of Technology
MIS (Management Information System), Session # 5 22

23. Information system development
System Analysis
Asking Questions and Collecting Data (Fact-finding Interviews) - Recording the interview
Having looked at planning and conducting a fact-finding interview, we now turn
to the subject of how to record it. This is an area that is particularly important
when asking questions, as the record of the answers given will form the basis for
constructing models of the system. No matter how skilled the interviewer, or
how good their questioning and listening, the interview is likely to be less than
successful if the recording techniques are incomplete or inappropriate. Often
interviewers comment on how difficult it is to develop a recording technique
that is easy to use, unobtrusive during the interview, non-threatening to the
interviewee, and understandable after the interview.
Many fact-finding interviews result in the interviewee describing a lot of
complex procedural details, and it can be difficult to capture this information
unambiguously. A graphical technique can simplify the capture of this sort of
information, but to be effective it must be simple and quick to use, and be easily
understood by the interviewee so it can be checked for accuracy. For example, a
mind map can be used to record information. This consists of a central idea, or
topic, enclosed in a circle with related topics radiating out from the circle. The
data flow diagram, which provides a pictorial view of how data moves around
an information system, is another recording technique that has been used effectively
by many analysts. It is described in the next chapter.
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MIS (Management Information System), Session # 5 23

24. Information system development
System Analysis
Asking Questions and Collecting Data (Questionnaires)
The use of a questionnaire helps to collect data from a lot of people without having to visit them all.
It is difficult to design a questionnaire that is both simple and comprehensive.
Also, unless the questions are kept short and clear, they may be misunderstood
A questionnaire may be the most effective method of fact-finding to collect a small amount of data from a lot of people
The use of a questionnaire might seem an attractive idea, as data can be collected
from a lot of people without having to visit them all. Although this is true, the
method should be used with care, as it is difficult to design a questionnaire that
is both simple and comprehensive. Also, unless the questions are kept short and
clear, they may be misunderstood by those questioned, making the data collected
unreliable.
A questionnaire may be the most effective method of fact-finding to collect a
small amount of data from a lot of people: for example, where staff are located
over a widely spread geographical area; when data must be collected from a
large number of staff; when time is short; and when 100% coverage is not
essential. A questionnaire can also be used as a means of verifying data collected
using other methods, or as the basis for the question-and-answer section
of a fact-finding interview. Another effective use of a questionnaire is to send
it out in advance of an interview. This will enable the respondent to assemble
the required information before the meeting, which means that the interview
can be more productive.
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MIS (Management Information System), Session # 5 24

25. Information system development
System Analysis
Asking Questions and Collecting Data (Questionnaires)
Designing a questionnaire
Heading section, which describes the purpose of the questionnaire and contains the main references – name, staff identification number, date, etc.;
Classification section for collecting information that can later be used for analyzing and summarizing the total data, such as age, sex, grade, job title, location;
Data section made up of questions designed to elicit the specific information being sought by the analyst.
When designing a questionnaire, there are three sections to consider:
• a heading section, which describes the purpose of the questionnaire and
contains the main references – name, staff identification number, date, etc.;
• a classification section for collecting information that can later be used for
analysing and summarising the total data, such as age, sex, grade, job title,
location;
• a data section made up of questions designed to elicit the specific information
being sought by the analyst.
These three sections can clearly be observed in the questionnaire in Figure 8.7:
the heading section is at the top (name and date), the next line down is for
recording classification information (job title, department and section), and the
data section is designed to gather information about the duties associated with a
particular job
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26. Information system development
System Analysis
Asking Questions and Collecting Data (Questionnaires)
Designing a questionnaire
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27. Information system development
System Analysis
Asking Questions and Collecting Data (Observation)
The systems analyst is constantly observing, and observations often provide clues about why the current system is not functioning properly.
The analyst may also be involved in undertaking planned or conscious observations which will involve watching an operation for a period to see exactly what happens.
“Systematic activity sampling”, involves making observations of a particular operation at predetermined times. The times are chosen initially by some random device, so that the staff carrying out the operation do not know in advance when they will next be under observation
The systems analyst is constantly observing, and observations often provide
clues about why the current system is not functioning properly. Observations of
the local environment during visits to the client site, as well as very small and
unexpected incidents, can all be significant in later analysis, and it is important
that they are recorded at the time.
The analyst may also be involved in undertaking planned or conscious
observations when it is decided to use this technique for part of the study. This
will involve watching an operation for a period to see exactly what happens.
Clearly, formal observation should only be used if agreement is given and users
are prepared to cooperate. Observation should be done openly, as covert observation
can undermine any trust and goodwill the analyst manages to build
up. The technique is particularly good for tracing bottlenecks and checking facts
that have already been noted.
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MIS (Management Information System), Session # 5 27

28. Information system development
System Analysis
Asking Questions and Collecting Data (Observation)
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29. Information system development
System Analysis
Asking Questions and Collecting Data (Record Searching)
Time constraints can prevent systems analysts from making as thorough an investigation of the current system as they might wish
“Record searching” involves looking through written records to obtain quantitative information, and to confirm or quantify information already supplied by user staff or management.
All of the information collected by record searching can be used to cross-check information given by users of the system.
Where there are a large number of documents, statistical sampling can be used.
Time constraints can prevent systems analysts from making as thorough an
investigation of the current system as they might wish. Another approach,
which enables conclusions to be drawn from a sample of past and present
results of the current system, is called record searching. This involves looking
through written records to obtain quantitative information, and to confirm or
quantify information already supplied by user staff or management. Information
can be collected about:
• the volume of file data and transactions, frequencies, and trends;
• the frequency with which files are updated;
• the accuracy of the data held in the system;
• unused forms;
• exceptions and omissions.
Using this information, an assessment of the volatility of the information can be
made, and the usefulness of existing information can be questioned if it appears
that some file data is merely updated, often inaccurate or little used. All of the
information collected by record searching can be used to cross-check information
given by users of the system. This doesn’t imply that user opinion will be
inaccurate, but discrepancies can be evaluated and the reasons for them discussed.
Where there are a large number of documents, statistical sampling can be
used. This will involve sampling randomly or systematically to provide the
required quantitative and qualitative information. This can be perfectly satisfactory
if the analyst understands the concepts behind statistical sampling, but is
a very hazardous exercise for the untrained. One particularly common fallacy is
to draw conclusions from a non-representative sample. Extra care should be
taken in estimating volumes and data field sizes from the evidence of a sample.
For instance, a small sample of cash receipts inspected during a mid-month slack
period might indicate an average of 40 per day, with a maximum value of £1500
for any one item. Such a sample used indiscriminately for system design might be
disastrous if the real-life situation was that the number of receipts ranged from
20 to 2000 per day depending upon the time in the month, and that, exceptionally,
cheques for over £100,000 were received. It is therefore recommended that
more than one sample is taken and the results compared to ensure consistency.
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30. Information system development
System Analysis
Asking Questions and Collecting Data (Document Analysis)
“document analysis” is another fact-finding technique which is particularly powerful when used in combination with one or more of the other techniques described.
In order to fully understand the purpose of a document and its importance to the business, the analyst must ask questions about how, where, why and when it is used.
When investigating the data flowing through a system another useful technique
is to collect documents that show how this information is organised. Such
documents might include reports, forms, organisation charts or formal lists. In
order to fully understand the purpose of a document and its importance to the
business, the analyst must ask questions about how, where, why and when it is
used. This is called document analysis, and is another fact-finding technique
available. It is particularly powerful when used in combination with one or more
of the other techniques described in this chapter.
In the previous edition of this book we showed a Clerical Document Specification
originally prepared by the UK National Computing Centre, and it
still serves as a good example of what can be used to help with the process of
document analysis. A copy of the form is shown as Figure 8.9. Even if the form
cannot be fully completed at the first attempt, it will point to those topics that
need further investigation.
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MIS (Management Information System), Session # 5 30