1. Mary Kramer Reinwasser, M.Ed. Arizona State-Based TTA Manager
Head Start
Arizona Head Start TTA Office Summer Webinar Series: Child-Adult Interactions
Slide #1
Welcome to the Arizona Head Start Training and Technical Assistance Office 2010 Summer Webinar Series. Please remember to mute your phone (*6) in order to assure the clarity of the audio portion of the program. For those who attend today’s webinar, a certificate of attendance will be ed within 48 hours. For those who are viewing this webinar as a group, the address signed on will be the recipient of the certificate and will be that person’s responsibility for forwarding the certificate to other attendees. This webinar today is on Child Adult Interaction, the first in a two part series.
The quality of the interactions between teachers and young children has long been a topic of discussion among early childhood educators and others concerned with young children's development. It is generally agreed that because so much basic early learning (e.g., language, social competence) occurs through interactive experiences when children are very young, the quality of teacher- child interactions contributes substantially to effects that early group care and preschool education have on children.
The foundation for children’s successful development is established early in life. From birth, children interact with others in a variety of contexts that shape who they are as individuals. Two of the most influential environments for young children include the family and the early childhood education environment. The family environment appears to have more influence on children than any other environment in which children interact (NICHD, 2006); however, given the fact that such a high percentage of children are spending substantial amounts of time in non-parental care arrangements, what do we know about the impact of the early childhood education environment on children’s development? Moreover, what features of this environment appear to have the greatest influence on children’s developmental outcomes?
Mary Kramer Reinwasser, M.Ed.
Arizona State-Based TTA Manager
PC DOCS #467446

2. Agenda Components of quality interactions
Research in teacher-child interactions
Parenting/caregiving styles
Temperament and Interactions
Positive child-teacher interaction strategies
Today, we will be discussing the following topics of adult-child interactions:
Components of quality interactions
Research in teacher-child interactions
Parenting/caregiving styles
Temperament and Interactions
Positive child-teacher interaction strategies
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3. Learning Outcomes
Participants will be able to name the components of quality interactions
Participants will be able to identify outcomes of positive adult child interactions
Participants will be able to describe common parenting/caregiving styles
Participants will be able to describe several strategies to enhance positive child-teacher interactions
The material covered in today’s webinar should lead to the following learning outcomes:
Participants will be able to name the components of quality interactions
Participants will be able to identify outcomes of positive adult child interactions
Participants will be able to describe common parenting/caregiving styles
Participants will be able to describe several strategies to enhance positive child-teacher interactions
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4. National Association for the Education of Young Children
Overview
The developmental appropriateness of an early childhood program is most apparent in the interaction between adults and children.
National Association for the Education of Young Children
The developmental appropriateness of an early childhood program is most apparent in the interaction between adults and children.
National Association for the Education of Young Children
Providing experiences that allow children to become autonomous and independent is a general description of one of the key roles adults play in the early childhood years. The quality of teacher-child interactions and relationships impacts child outcomes in various ways in early childhood and the primary grades. Positive teacher-child relationships may serve as “buffers” or protective factors for children. For example, positive, caring and supportive adult relationships (e.g. parent, mentor or others) have been associated with children being able to defy the odds of living in poverty. Positive teacher-child relationships have been linked to many positive child outcomes in the early school years such as being involved in school and low levels of aggression. For primary age children, negative teacher-child relationships have been associated with lower scores on standardized tests, language arts and math grades, less school engagement, increased classroom misbehavior, high levels of aggression and social withdrawal.
PC DOCS #467446

5. Research
Close teacher-child relationships and quality classroom practices are related to:
higher social skills of preschoolers
lower symptoms of anxiety, depression and social withdrawal in first grade
more letters known, higher math scores and advanced language and literacy skills while in preschool
better language and cognitive skills among preschoolers
higher reading skills when coupled with a structured and disciplined home environment
better receptive language
good peer interactions and positive relationships with teachers and peers in elementary school
lower levels of challenging behaviors and higher levels of competence
Slide #5 Research
The current knowledge base about child development and learning reinforces practices and approaches that integrate cognitive learning and social development. These include:
Close teacher-child relationships and quality classroom practices are related to higher social skills of preschoolers. Researchers have found that teachers who provided positive communication, warm affection and opportunities for children to be in charge, tended to have students with high levels of social skills such as completing work, tolerating frustration, and interacting with peers.
Close teacher-child relationships in preschool and kindergarten have also been found to predict lower symptoms of anxiety, depression and social withdrawal in first grade.
High conflict teacher-child relationships in kindergarten and first grade have also been linked with lower social skills in the areas of responsibility, cooperation, self-control and assertion in first grade. Preschoolers who have close relationships with teachers tend to know more letters, have higher math scores and advanced language and literacy skills while in preschool.
Close teacher-child relationships and quality classroom practices are related to better language and cognitive skills among preschoolers.
Children who had close teacher-child relationships in preschool and a structured and disciplined environment at home had higher reading skills than children whose parents were not as firm.
Close teacher-child relationships were related to better receptive language for all children, but this was even stronger for children of color than for white children. Further, the connection between positive teacher-child relationships and children’s language was even stronger for preschool children than early elementary school children.3
Research has suggested that teacher-child relationships play a significant role in influencing young children's social and emotional development. In studies of teacher-child relationships, children who had a secure relationship with their preschool and kindergarten teachers demonstrated good peer interactions and positive relationships with teachers and peers in elementary school. On the other hand, children who had insecure relationships with teachers had more difficulty interacting with peers and engaged in more conflict with their teachers.
In addition, research has shown that teachers' interaction styles with children help children build positive and emotionally secure relationships with adults. For instance, teachers' smiling behaviors, affectionate words, and appropriate physical contact help promote children's positive responses toward teachers. Also, children whose teachers showed warmth and respect toward them (e. g., teachers who listened when children talked to them, made eye contact, treated children fairly) developed positive and competent peer relationships. Moreover, children who had secure relationships with their teachers demonstrated lower levels of challenging behaviors and higher levels of competence in school.
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6. Components of Quality Interactions
Teacher-Child Interaction and Student Learning
Teacher-Child Communication
Teacher-Child Interaction and the Promotion of a Positive Self-Image
Teacher-Child Interaction and Disciplinary Styles
Authoritative
Authoritarian
Permissive
Neglecting/rejecting
Slide #6 Components of Quality Interactions
Teacher-child interactions are especially critical during the preschool years because it is through these interactions that children become better equipped to succeed during the formal school-age years. It has been discovered that academic success in the first grade is dependent, in large part, on having children well-prepared academically, socially, and emotionally prior to entrance into school. According to Downer and Pianta (2006), teachers’ interactions with children should be sensitive and responsive to the needs of the children and should reflect a positive outlook toward the process of learning. Interactions should involve feedback that helps children expand their critical thinking skills and their understanding of new concepts. Helping children in this way contributes to their comfort level with the learning process and enhances their academic confidence. Conversations between a teacher and a child provide the foundation for the development of a trusting teacher-child relationship and also help to strengthen children’s language and literacy skills. Beyond teaching the mechanics of a conversation, effective conversation stimulates children’s cognitive development, including their oral language skills.
Not all conversation, however, is created equal. Cognitively challenging conversations are conversations in which children are asked to explain ideas, provide personal narratives, analyze ideas, share experiences, and voice opinions. These conversations involve the use of a wide vocabulary and center around concepts that are beyond the “here and now.” Researchers refer to such conversation as decontextualized. They contrast this style of conversation with contextualized conversation, which centers on the immediate environment. Contextualized conversation involves language such as, “What color is the duck?” or
“Hang up your coat,” and does not require the child to summarize, infer, analyze, or engage in thinking not tied directly to their immediate environment. While important, this type of conversation is not as effective at building language and literacy skills. By requiring children to use their language skills to convey information about another time or place, children who engage in decontextualized conversation are using their cognitive skills to represent ideas, which is a key element in reading comprehension. Children’s self-evaluations begin in early childhood and continue throughout life. For very young children, self-esteem is based primarily on feelings of being loved, accepted, and valued by parents and other significant caregivers. As children age, self-esteem also becomes a product of feelings derived from evaluating oneself against some external criteria (e.g., school performance; physical attractiveness). Therefore, the frequency and quality of interactions that teachers have with children can impact their sense of self-worth. Evidence suggests that children’s self-evaluations are particularly susceptible to evaluative comments by teachers. Through consistent positive interactions with children, you can help children develop a love of learning, a sense of competence in their abilities, and a desire to expand their current level of knowledge and skills. Just as children are learning new skills and formulating a more comprehensive self-image in the early childhood years, they are also developing character and discipline. As a child care provider, you have a unique opportunity to help children define socially acceptable behavior, understand that unacceptable behavior comes with consequences, and develop positive character traits. Diana Baumrind, a research psychologist at the University of California, has conducted studies on discipline for over 40 years. Results from her work reveal that parents and caregivers use a variety of disciplinary styles with children. However, it appears that not all styles are equally effective. In her research and writings, Baumrind identifies the following four main parenting/caregiving styles:
1. Authoritative. An authoritative style is one in which parents/caregivers are restrictive and demanding, yet communicative and warm. These adults have high expectations for children, but they also express love and support for the children in their care. These caregivers tend
to be flexible, but firm; maintain control and discipline; and have clear expectations for behavior, which they monitor. Researchers have found that the authoritative style of discipline fosters responsibility, cooperation, and self-regulation in children. It is a balanced approach to caring for children and is the most effective style to use with them.
2. Authoritarian. An authoritarian style is one in which parents/caregivers demand submission and obedience from their children without flexibility. They are highly directive and more controlling than authoritative caregivers. Adults who use this style tend to communicate poorly with children and express very little warmth (i.e., nurturing behavior) toward them. Children under the care of authoritarian caregivers tend to be conflicted and irritable.
3. Permissive. A permissive style of discipline is one in which parents/caregivers are not controlling or restrictive. Adults who use this style of discipline do not demand mature behavior from their children. They tend to be warm and accepting of their children; however, they allow their children to pretty much do as they wish. These caregivers make fewer demands, allow children to regulate themselves, using little discipline, and avoid confrontation of problematic behavior. Children raised by permissive caregivers tend to be less assertive, and less cognitively competent. They also tend to show less self-regulation and social responsibility.
4. Rejecting/Neglecting. A rejecting/neglecting style is one in which parents/caregivers do not structure, organize, discipline, attend or supervise their children. This style is characterized by low control and low warmth. Adults who use this style actively reject or neglect the children in their care. Children raised by caregivers who are rejecting cope the worst, and are the least competent of the four groups.
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7. Teacher Beliefs sensitivity of interactions with children,
involvement (both verbal and nonverbal) of interactions with children, and
play style adopted when interacting with children
Results
22% reported that they were able to always practice their beliefs
65% indicated that they were able to practice their beliefs most of the time
4% claimed that they were able to practice their beliefs only some of the time, and
7% reported that they were seldom able to practice their beliefs.
Slide # 7 Teacher Beliefs
Theories of best practice and current research findings support the need for early childhood educators to be actively involved and sensitive when interacting with young children. The National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) suggests that teachers should "accept responsibility for actively supporting children's development" and that this active involvement should occur in the context of a solid understanding of children's individual needs and interests (Bredekamp & Copple, 1997). In addition, researchers have demonstrated that sensitive, involved care is related to positive outcomes for both children and classrooms.
Although scholars in the field of early childhood education promote active, involved teaching behaviors, not all teachers hold personal beliefs about teaching that match this viewpoint. Although some early childhood teachers believe that children's play is enhanced when teachers interact with them in an involved, supportive manner, many others are hesitant to engage in "active" behaviors for fear of interrupting productive play. Therefore, it appears that there may be disparity between what scholars in the field would like teachers to do and what teachers actually do. It is important to look at both the beliefs and behaviors of early childhood educators because teacher beliefs or theories may serve as a filter through which teachers screen their classroom experiences, interpret them, and adapt their subsequent classroom practices (Clark & Peterson, 1986). These filters or beliefs are formed during their own schooling through which they process subsequent educational and teaching experiences. These are also referred to as schemas, a term we have come to know well through Piaget’s influence on the field. It can be thought of as schemas that teachers bring with them to the task of teaching. Scholars have asserted that such schemas create a context for acquiring new information, and they are resistant to change.
What is less well known how intentions toward teaching factor into interactions. Intentions refer to a person's desire to engage in a particular behavior (Ajzen, 1989). Characteristics of the teacher may also be important to measure. Evidence indicates that teachers' beliefs are influenced by education, specialized training, and experience with young children. In general, studies designed to assess components integral to early childhood teaching expertise say that education and specialized training are good predictors of beliefs and actions regarding appropriate caregiving and classroom quality and that experience is not a good predictor (Arnett, 1989; Cassidy & Buell, 1996; Elicker, Huang, & Wen, 2003; Howes, Phillips, & Whitebook, 1992; Kontos, Howes, Shinn, & Galinsky, 1995; McMullen & Alat, 2002).
Finally, it is necessary to assess whether teachers feel free to act upon their beliefs. Many teachers report that they do not feel that they are able to implement a program that is consistent with their beliefs. They assert that parents, administrators, and colleagues often force teachers to internalize constraints that affect their ability to enact their personal beliefs.
In this particular study, three main components of teacher interactions were looked at.
Sensitivity
Items relating to sensitivity were adapted from the Arnett Classroom Interaction Scale (Arnett, 1989). This observational tool measures how warmly caregivers interact with children, as well as the quality of their communication, their enthusiasm, and their involvement. Researchers have shown that when teachers are more sensitive, or emotionally responsive, the children in their care have higher language development scores, they rate higher in attachment security, and they are more sociable with peers
Teacher Involvement (Verbal)
The level at which teachers are verbally involved with children is frequently measured in one of two ways-how often teachers talk and the types of things they say to children. Type of teacher talk can vary from not talking at all with children to asking them open-ended questions and elaborating on their comments (Kontos & Wilcox-Herzog, 1997). Current research has shown that when teachers use more suggestions, open-ended questions, and elaborative statements with children, the children exhibit higher levels of social and cognitive developmental competence (Clarke-Stewart, 1987; Erwin, Carpenter, & Kontos, 1993; Pellegrini, 1984).
Teacher Involvement (Nonverbal)
A second way to measure how involved teachers are with children is to assess both their verbal and nonverbal behaviors. Conceptualized this way, teacher involvement can range from ignoring children to sitting close to them while playing interactively (Kontos & Wilcox-Herzog, 1997). Researchers have suggested that when teachers are interacting with children at higher levels of involvement, this involvement is positively related to children's development. For instance, when teachers are more involved with children, those children rate higher in attachment security, they spend less time wandering aimlessly, and they score higher on language development assessments (Kontos, Howes, Shinn, & Galinsky, 1995; Whitebook, Howes, & Phillips, 1989).
Teacher Play Styles
Teacher play style refers to the overall role that teachers take on when they are interacting with children. Examples of such roles include socializing with children, playing with children, monitoring their behavior, and assisting with self-help tasks. Teacher play styles, or roles, have previously been examined in the context of children's play. For instance, in a study of Head Start teachers, it was found that teachers typically spend most of their time playing with children and helping them to get ready to play (Kontos, 1998).
RESULTS
The results do suggest that if teachers score high on the intentional measure, they might be more likely to interact in appropriate ways with young children. Theory suggests that intentions are a mediating factor between beliefs and actions and are the best predictor of eventual behavior (Ajzen, 1996; Fazio & Roskos-Ewoldsen, 1994). This presumed relationship is potentially useful to those working with teachers directly responsible for the care and education of young children. Assessing teachers' beliefs and intentions might be a first step in guiding them toward more appropriate practice with young children. If beliefs and intentions are indeed related to actual practice with children, then changing teachers' thoughts may actually lead to improvements in teaching behavior. Those interested in training employees in workplace settings have long recognized that helping professionals to achieve accurate self-assessment can help them to better understand assessment by others and use feedback results more productively in changing practice (London, 2003).
Job title, however, did influence the perceived ability to practice beliefs. Teacher aides felt more able to practice their beliefs than did teachers. This finding is interesting and may reflect the fact that, regardless of training, teachers might have a heightened sense of how they are supposed to be interacting with young children. Typically, directors work with teachers to improve the quality of classrooms and expect teachers to pass this message along to aides. Therefore, teachers might feel the most pressure to act in accordance with the beliefs of their direct supervisor. This type of constraint may explain why some researchers have found that teachers are not always able to implement their beliefs in their classrooms (Charlesworth, Hart, Burts, Thomasson, Mosley, & Fleege, 1993; Hatch & Freeman, 1988; Kontos & Dunn, 1993).
Finally, the results demonstrated that intentions differed by depth of training held. Regardless of job title, those with the most education and training were most likely to report engaging in developmentally appropriate behavior. Oddly enough, teachers with the least education/training were next in line to say that they engaged in high-level interactions with children. This finding may indicate that those with the least training are merely following those with the most training or that they are over-reporting the appropriateness of their own interactions with children.
PC DOCS #467446

8. Promoting Positive Teacher-Child Interaction
Engage in one-to-one interactions with children
Get on the child's level for face-to-face interactions
Use a pleasant, calm voice and simple language
Provide warm, responsive physical contact
Follow the child's lead and interest during play
Help children understand classroom expectations
Redirect children when they engage in challenging behavior
Listen to children and encourage them to listen to others
Acknowledge children for their accomplishments and effort
Slide #8 Promoting Positive Teacher-Child Interaction
In early childhood settings, each moment that teachers and children interact with one another is an opportunity to develop positive relationships. Teachers can use a variety of strategies to build positive relationships with children. Teacher behaviors such as listening to children, making eye contact with them, and engaging in many one-to-one, face-to-face interactions with young children promote secure teacher-child relationships. Talking to children using pleasant, calm voices and simple language, and greeting children warmly when they arrive in the classroom with their parents or from the buses help establish secure relationships between teachers and children. In developing positive teacher-child relationships, it is important to remember to:
Engage in one-to-one interactions with children
Get on the child's level for face-to-face interactions
Use a pleasant, calm voice and simple language
Provide warm, responsive physical contact
Follow the child's lead and interest during play
Help children understand classroom expectations
Redirect children when they engage in challenging behavior
Listen to children and encourage them to listen to others
Acknowledge children for their accomplishments and effort
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9. Treat each child with warmness and respect
Do you warmly greet children when they arrive in your classroom?
Do you give the children a hug?
Do you pat children on the back when they have done a good job?
Do you comfort children who are in distress by providing prompt support and assistance?
Do you maintain eye contact with children when engaged in a conversation?
Do you smile often?
Do you carefully consider your tone of voice when talking with the children?
Do you acknowledge the children’s point of view by actively listening?
Slide #9 Treat each child with warmness and respect.
Strong teacher-child relationships are formed over time as a result of consistent positive interactions. Make an effort to treat each child with kindness and respect regardless of the child’s gender, ethnicity, or family background. Children need to feel loved and respected by the influential adults in their lives. You can convey this love and respect by interacting with children in a warm and caring manner. Some important questions to consider include:
• Do you warmly greet children when they arrive in your classroom?
• Do you give the children a hug?
• Do you pat children on the back when they have done a good job?
• Do you comfort children who are in distress by providing prompt support and assistance?
• Do you maintain eye contact with children when engaged in a conversation?
• Do you smile often?
• Do you carefully consider your tone of voice when talking with the children?
• Do you acknowledge the children’s point of view by actively listening?
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10. Create a positive emotional climate
Do children enjoy coming into your classroom in the morning?
Do they feel safe and secure?
Is the physical environment conducive to learning?
Are conversations pleasant for the most part?
Are the expectations you have for children fair?
Does your non-verbal behavior convey that you are happy to be in the classroom?
Slide #10 Create a positive emotional climate.
The emotional climate of a classroom is extremely important and is largely determined by the teacher. Both your verbal and non-verbal behavior contribute to children’s perceptions of the classroom climate. Questions to consider include:
• Do children enjoy coming into your classroom in the morning?
• Do they feel safe and secure?
• Is the physical environment conducive to learning?
• Are conversations pleasant for the most part?
• Are the expectations you have for children fair?
• Does your non-verbal behavior convey that you are happy to be in the classroom?
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11. Get to know each child on an individual basis
Do you engage each child in one-on-one conversations on a regular basis?
Do you listen to each child’s opinions?
Do you seek to learn more about a child’s likes and dislikes?
Do you make attempts to get to know the child’s family?
Do you understand the child’s cultural background?
Do you consider each child’s unique needs, interests, learning style, and abilities?
Do you regularly evaluate each child’s progress and vary your interactions accordingly?
Slide #11 Get to know each child on an individual basis
Make it a priority to get to know each child on an individual basis. Every child in your care is special in the sense that he or she possesses unique talents, abilities, and preferences to go along with a unique temperament, family history, and culture. When attempting to form a trusting and healthy relationship with each child, it is important to consider the following questions:
Do you engage each child in one-on-one conversations on a regular basis?
Do you listen to each child’s opinions?
Do you seek to learn more about a child’s likes and dislikes?
Do you make attempts to get to know the child’s family?
Do you understand the child’s cultural background?
Do you consider each child’s unique needs, interests, learning style, and abilities?
Do you regularly evaluate each child’s progress and vary your interactions accordingly?
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12. Engage children in cognitively stimulating activities
Do you talk to children on a frequent basis?
Do you respond to children’s questions and requests?
Do you engage in meaningful and extended conversations with
each child?
Do you read books aloud to children on a daily basis?
Do you ask children meaningful questions related to the books that you read?
Do you engage children in tasks and activities that offer children a real challenge?
Do you provide children with feedback that helps them think and expand their understanding of concepts covered in class?
Slide #12 Engage children in cognitively stimulating activities.
One of the most important predictors of children’s cognitive and language development is the language used by the caregiver. As you consider the interactions that you have with children in your child care program, do you:
• talk to children on a frequent basis?
• respond to children’s questions and requests?
• engage in meaningful and extended conversations with each child?
• read books aloud to children on a daily basis?
• ask children meaningful questions related to the books that you read?
• engage children in tasks and activities that offer children a real challenge?
• provide children with feedback that helps them think and expand their understanding of concepts covered in class?
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13. Utilize an authoritative approach in guiding
Do you take into account the age, developmental stage, and temperament of each child?
Do you communicate your expectations for children’s behavior clearly and directly?
Do you hold children responsible for their behavior?
Do you implement consequences for negative behavior in a fair and consistent manner?
Are you firm, yet loving toward the children in your care?
Slide #13 Utilize an authoritative approach when guiding and disciplining children.
When it comes to guiding children’s behavior, the most effective style of interaction is an authoritative one that carefully balances control and strictness with warmth and flexibility. Children thrive when caregivers are firm and demanding, yet warm and caring. As you consider the manner in which you guide and discipline the children in your care, reflect on the following questions:
• Do you take into account the age, developmental stage, and temperament of each child?
• Do you communicate your expectations for children’s behavior clearly and directly?
• Do you hold children responsible for their behavior?
• Do you implement consequences for negative behavior in a fair and consistent manner?
• Are you firm, yet loving toward the children in your care?
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14. Impact of Positive Child-Teacher Interactions
Problem-solvers
Language learners
Negotiators
Communicators
Social partners
Providing experiences that allow children to become autonomous and independent is a general description of one of the key roles adults play in the early childhood years. The quality of teacher-child interactions and relationships impacts child outcomes in various ways in early childhood and the primary grades. Positive teacher-child relationships may serve as "buffers" or protective factors for children.2,3,4 For example, positive, caring and supportive adult relationships (e.g. parent, mentor or others) have been associated with children being able to defy the odds of living in poverty.5,6 Positive teacher-child relationships have been linked to many positive child outcomes in the early school years such as being involved in school and low levels of aggression.7,8 For primary age children, negative teacher-child relationships have been associated with lower scores on standardized tests, language arts and math grades, less school engagement, increased classroom misbehavior, high levels of aggression and social withdrawal.4,9,10 The complex developmental tasks of relationship building, self-confidence and self-regulation are best accomplished during the preschool years. Building social skills and healthy emotional relationships in young children is much easier than trying to remediate later adjustment problems.
The current knowledge base about child development and learning reinforces practices and approaches that integrate cognitive learning and social development. These include:
Close teacher-child relationships and quality classroom practices are related to higher social skills of preschoolers.11,12 Researchers have found that teachers who provided positive communication, warm affection and opportunities for children to be in charge, tended to have students with high levels of social skills such as completing work, tolerating frustration, and interacting with peers.13
Close teacher-child relationships in preschool and kindergarten have also been found to predict lower symptoms of anxiety, depression and social withdrawal in first grade.1
High conflict teacher-child relationships in kindergarten and first grade have also been linked with lower social skills in the areas of responsibility, cooperation, self-control and assertion in first grade.1
Preschoolers who have close relationships with teachers tend to know more letters, have higher math scores and advanced language and literacy skills while in preschool.11 Researchers have also found that close teacher-child relationships and quality classroom practices are related to better language and cognitive skills among preschoolers.12
Children who had close teacher-child relationships in preschool and a structured and disciplined environment at home had higher reading skills than children whose parents were not as firm.3
Close teacher-child relationships were related to better receptive language for all children, but this was even stronger for children of color than for white children. Further, the connection between positive teacher-child relationships and children’s language was even stronger for preschool children than early elementary school children.3
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15. Temperament and Interactions
Task Orientation/Task Attention is composed of activity level, persistence, and distractibility.
Personal-Social Flexibility (Social Adaptability) includes items from the dimensions of withdrawal/approach, adaptability, and positive mood.
Reactivity contains items from the dimensions of intensity, and threshold of response, and negative mood.
Slide #15 Temperament and Interactions
There are many theoretical perspectives regarding temperament; however, researchers (Buss & Plomin, 1984; Thomas& Chess, 1977; Rothbart & Derryberry, 1981) generally agree on the following definition of temperament: Temperament is a general term referring to “intrinsic tendencies to act or react in specific and predictable ways to stimuli, people, and events” (Teglasi, 1998, p. 475). It is also believed that temperament characteristics are biologically rooted, become apparent early in life, and are relatively stable across various kinds of situation and over time (Bates, 1987; Buss and Plomin, 1984; Carey and McDevitt, 1978; Goldsmith et al., 1987; Kohnstamm, 1986; Thomas and Chess, 1977).
Stella Chess and Alexander Thomas are considered as pioneers of temperament research in childhood (Anderson-Goetz, Worobey, 1984; Bates, 1989; Bates, 2001; Guerin et al, 2003; Rothbart & Jones, 1998). These two researchers and their colleagues conducted the New York Longitudinal Study (NYLS), which stimulated the current research on temperament in the United States. In 1959, they found that the child is an active agent in his or her own development. Child-caregiver interaction is not a one-sided process. The child plays a highly active part in the interaction process by his or her temperamental traits (Thomas, Chess, Birch, 1968, p. 4).
The fundamental principle of this approach is the concept of “goodness of fit” (Thomas et al., 1968). According to Thomas et al. (1968), the child’s optimal development will be achieved if the environment and expectations within the environment are in agreement with the child’s capacity and temperament. If there is a ‘goodness of fit’ between the adults’ attitudes and practices and the child’s capacity and temperament to master these demands, development will proceed smoothly, and foundation of a healthy personality will be established. If the child’s characteristics and environmental demands are incompatible, the child cannot cope with these demands and becomes excessively stressed, and as a result, unhealthy personality basis will be established for the child (Thomas & Chess, 1977). The problems related to “lack of fit” between the child’s temperament and parenting strategies can be reduced by adjusting parenting strategies suitably to a child’s temperament (Thomas, Chess and Birch, 1968).
Research results indicate that child temperament affects some aspects of teacher-child interaction. Child temperament has been shown to affect teacher expectations (Keogh, Pullis & Cadwell, 1982; Thomas & Chess, 1977); the amount of the time teachers spend with children; teachers’ monitoring decisions; and the frequency of teachers’ praise, criticism, instruction, physical contact, and directive behaviors (Nelson, 1987, Pullis & Cadwell, 1982). However, although research clarified the effects of verbally stimulating teacher-child interaction on child outcomes in preschool years, how child characteristics affect verbally stimulating teacher-child interaction remains unexplored.
Children’s temperament was measured by teacher ratings. The short form of Thomas and Chess’ (1977) Teacher Temperament Questionnaire revised by Keogh (1982) was used. Keogh used 8 dimensions of temperament: activity level, distractibility, attention span/persistence, approach/withdrawal, adaptability, intensity of reaction, threshold of responsiveness, and quality of mood. Researchers (Keogh, 1982; Pullis & Cadwell; 1982; and Martin, Nagle, & Paget, 1983) extracted three common factors through factor analysis of teacher ratings of temperament. These factors are: Task Orientation, Personal-Social Flexibility, and Reactivity.
􀁸 Task Orientation (Task Attention) is composed of activity level, persistence, and distractibility. Task Orientation indicates a child’s ability to be seated during a task and to persist on the task until completion without being distracted.
􀁸 Personal-Social Flexibility (Social Adaptability) includes items from the dimensions of withdrawal/approach,
adaptability, and positive mood. Social Adaptability is about children’s tendency to react positively to new situations or stimuli and to modify behaviors easily in the desired direction, and to have positive attitudes during social interactions.
􀁸 Reactivity contains items from the dimensions of intensity, and threshold of response, and negative mood. When frustrated, children with high Reactivity have a tendency to overact and become overly upset.
Research indicates a need to educate teachers about temperament and how to use this knowledge in their classroom to improve their relationships and interactions with children. Therefore, temperament as a topic should be included as a course in early childhood education programs and curriculum. It may also be useful to include material on temperament in in-service training courses. Pre-service programs or in-service training may include theoretical knowledge about temperament, and the assessment of the temperament, and its application in the classroom context. Knowledge about temperament can help teachers not only to improve their relationships and interactions with children, but also to create the necessary environments that can modify the temperamental characteristics of the children in their classrooms.
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16. Programs can…
Create a warm, nurturing, welcoming physical environment that fosters the development of trusting relationships15
Understand that trust is foundational to positive interactions and the development of relationships15
Establish a working environment that reflects respect for individual teachers and children
Model communication that is direct, supportive, and respectful of parents, teachers, and children
Create a warm, nurturing, welcoming physical environment that fosters the development of trusting relationships15
Understand that trust is foundational to positive interactions and the development of relationships15
Establish a working environment that reflects respect for individual teachers and children
Model communication that is direct, supportive, and respectful of parents, teachers, and children
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17. Programs can…
Re-visit the Head Start Child Outcomes Framework and emphasize practices and approaches that integrate cognitive learning and social development
Promote the understanding that social competence is culturally determined
Identify strategies that accommodate and support culture and language backgrounds of staff, families and children
Understand that meaningful relationships require content
Re-visit the Head Start Child Outcomes Framework and emphasize practices and approaches that integrate cognitive learning and social development
Promote the understanding that social competence is culturally determined
Identify strategies that accommodate and support culture and language backgrounds of staff, families and children
Understand that meaningful relationships require content
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18. Practitioners can…
Provide learning environments that are positive, sensitive, responsive and include frequent individualized interactions
Structure the physical environment, equipment and materials in ways that promote quality social interactions among children, parents and teachers
Implement an engaging curriculum that includes opportunities for each child to participate
Respect and validate children’s cultural and language backgrounds
Plan and implement experiences that are of interest to children and include content that promotes and sustains the development of positive child-child and adult-child relationships
Provide classroom routines that are consistent and predictable
Provide learning environments that are positive, sensitive, responsive and include frequent individualized interactions
Structure the physical environment, equipment and materials in ways that promote quality social interactions among children, parents and teachers
Implement an engaging curriculum that includes opportunities for each child to participate
Respect and validate children’s cultural and language backgrounds
Plan and implement experiences that are of interest to children and include content that promotes and sustains the development of positive child-child and adult-child relationships
Provide classroom routines that are consistent and predictable
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19. Practitioners can…
Use effective well-timed transitions that include warnings about transitions that preview what is going to happen next, and communicate clearly what is expected of children
Provide positive attention that encourages each child
Find ways to validate how children are feeling and what they are experiencing
Be actively engaged in learning new things with children
Identify ways to reinforce children’s positive behaviors and learning
Maintain high expectations related to children’s behavior and learning across all developmental domains identified within the Head Start Child Outcomes Framework and state and local curriculum standards
Use effective well-timed transitions that include warnings about transitions that preview what is going to happen next, and communicate clearly what is expected of children
Provide positive attention that encourages each child
Find ways to validate how children are feeling and what they are experiencing
Be actively engaged in learning new things with children
Identify ways to reinforce children’s positive behaviors and learning
Maintain high expectations related to children’s behavior and learning across all developmental domains identified within the Head Start Child Outcomes Framework and state and local curriculum standards
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20. Children are developing the capacity of…
trust
autonomy
initiative
creativity
Slide #20 In summary,
Children are developing the capacity of
trust
autonomy
initiative
creativity
through positive relationships with adults.
…through positive relationships with adults.
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21. Questions Slide #16 Questions
This concludes the webinar Child Adult Interactions. Any there any questions about the contents of today’s webinar?
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22. The Arizona Head Start Training and Technical Assistance Office and STG International thank you for joining our webinar today! Please continue to join the 2010 Summer Webinar Series occurring every Tuesday and Thursday during the months of June and July at 3:00 Pacific Daylight Time. Please contact Mary Kramer Reinwasser at for more information.
The Arizona Head Start Training and Technical Assistance Office and STG International thank you for joining our webinar today. Please contact me, Mary Kramer Reinwasser, at for more information about our 2010 Summer Webinar Series occurring every Tuesday and Thursday during the months of June and July at 3:00 Pacific Daylight Time. Enjoy the rest of your day!
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