1. EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY REFLECTION FOR ACTION Canadian Edition EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY REFLECTION FOR ACTION Canadian Edition O’Donnell, D’Amico, Schmid, Reeve, Smith

2. CHAPTER 11 Effective Teachers and the Process of Teaching

3. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition Chapter 11 Effective Teachers and the Process of Teaching Themes of the chapterThemes of the chapter –Thoughtful learning can be fostered by high- quality teaching –Teachers’ knowledge of the subject matter they are teaching and their beliefs about themselves, their students, and the processes of learning and teaching have important influences on classroom practices and problems

4. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition Themes of the chapter (continued)Themes of the chapter (continued) –There are different theoretical perspectives on peer learning and the means through which peers promote learning –Peer learning can lead to the acquisition of skills and knowledge in widely differing classroom situations –Key issues in peer learning are quality of student discourse, kinds of tasks teachers choose, role of the teacher, peer mediation, and assessing outcomes of peer learning. Chapter 11 Effective Teachers and the Process of Teaching

5. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition Guiding Questions How do teachers’ beliefs, knowledge of subject matter, and general knowledge of teaching translate into ways to teach specific material to students?How do teachers’ beliefs, knowledge of subject matter, and general knowledge of teaching translate into ways to teach specific material to students? How do experienced teachers differ from novice teachers?How do experienced teachers differ from novice teachers? What are some general teacher-centred approaches to teaching?What are some general teacher-centred approaches to teaching? What kinds of teaching tactics can teachers use?What kinds of teaching tactics can teachers use?

6. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition Guiding Questions (continued) How can teachers use homework effectively?How can teachers use homework effectively? How can teachers plan to meet the needs of students who have special needs?How can teachers plan to meet the needs of students who have special needs? How do theoretical perspectives describe the means by which students can learn from peers?How do theoretical perspectives describe the means by which students can learn from peers? How effective is tutoring and learning from peers? What processes are involved?How effective is tutoring and learning from peers? What processes are involved? What do teachers need to consider when having students work in larger groups?What do teachers need to consider when having students work in larger groups?

7. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition What Is Teaching? – interpersonal effort to help learners acquire knowledge, develop skill, and realize their potential; requires: Teaching – interpersonal effort to help learners acquire knowledge, develop skill, and realize their potential; requires: Expertise in the subject matter being taughtExpertise in the subject matter being taught Belief in one’s ability to teach and students’ abilities to learnBelief in one’s ability to teach and students’ abilities to learn Sensitivity to the needs of different kinds of learnersSensitivity to the needs of different kinds of learners Planning and organizational skillsPlanning and organizational skills Interpersonal and leadership skillsInterpersonal and leadership skills A great deal of hard workA great deal of hard work

8. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition An Integrated Model of Child/Teacher/Curriculum

9. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition Beliefs about Teaching and Learning Sources of beliefsSources of beliefs – – activities, events, and understandings of everyday life –Personal experience – activities, events, and understandings of everyday life – – experiences when they were students –Experience with schooling and instruction – experiences when they were students – – knowledge from academic subjects and pedagogical knowledge from teacher education programs –Experience with formal knowledge – knowledge from academic subjects and pedagogical knowledge from teacher education programs

10. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition Examples of inaccurate teacher beliefs Preservice teachers believing in student autonomyPreservice teachers believing in student autonomy First year teachers becoming more controllingFirst year teachers becoming more controlling –: an approach to classroom management that views the teacher’s role as primarily maintaining an orderly classroom –Custodial: an approach to classroom management that views the teacher’s role as primarily maintaining an orderly classroom Beliefs about Teaching and Learning

11. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition Types of Knowledge – knowledge about the subject matter being taughtContent knowledge – knowledge about the subject matter being taught – knowledge about how to teachPedagogical knowledge – knowledge about how to teach – knowledge about how to make subject matter understandable to studentsPedagogical content knowledge – knowledge about how to make subject matter understandable to students

12. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition Experienced Teachers –View classroom as collection of individuals –Plan more globally and for longer periods –Have a more complex view of instructional options –Run a more smoothly operating classroom –Evaluate students more often and in ways closely related to content of instruction –Attribute failure to problems with planning, organization, or execution –Hold complex ideas about the role of students’ existing knowledge and make use of it during instruction

13. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition Phases of Development of Expertise Decreased focus on self-as-teacher; increased focus on the needs of learnersDecreased focus on self-as-teacher; increased focus on the needs of learners Enhanced knowledge about learnersEnhanced knowledge about learners Automation of classroom routines and proceduresAutomation of classroom routines and procedures Growth in problem-solving skillsGrowth in problem-solving skills

14. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition Teachers’ Self-Efficacy – one’s judgment of how well he or she will cope with a situation, given the skills one possesses and the circumstances one facesSelf-efficacy – one’s judgment of how well he or she will cope with a situation, given the skills one possesses and the circumstances one faces – a teacher’s judgment of, or confidence in, his or her capacity to cope with the teaching situation in ways that bring about desired outcomesTeaching efficacy – a teacher’s judgment of, or confidence in, his or her capacity to cope with the teaching situation in ways that bring about desired outcomes

15. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition Developing Self-Efficacy Canadian Teachers’ Federation reported in 2006 that a significant number of teachers leave the profession in the first five yearsCanadian Teachers’ Federation reported in 2006 that a significant number of teachers leave the profession in the first five years As a result, it is important to understand the role ofAs a result, it is important to understand the role of self-efficacy in teacher success –Verbal persuasion, personal history, and vicarious experience –Opportunities to experience successful coping –Observation of other teachers and imitating their behaviours

16. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition Self-Efficacy and Learners with Special Needs Teachers with a high sense of self- efficacy are less likely to refer students for evaluation than are teachers with a low sense of self-efficacyTeachers with a high sense of self- efficacy are less likely to refer students for evaluation than are teachers with a low sense of self-efficacy –Referral: educators’ shorthand for the recommendation that a child be evaluated for possible special education classification

17. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition Some recommendations for developing a multicultural curriculum include:Some recommendations for developing a multicultural curriculum include: –Create learning goals and objectives that incorporate multicultural aspects –Include a wide variety of ethnic groups in curriculum materials in variety of ways –Introduce different ethnic groups and their contributions –Include examples from different ethnic experiences to explain subject matter –Show how multicultural content, goals, and activities intersect with subject matter standards Working in Culturally Different Contexts

18. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition Planning Instructional goalsInstructional goals Using goals in classroom teachingUsing goals in classroom teaching Translating goals into plansTranslating goals into plans

19. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition Instructional Goals A statement of what is being worked for or desired in instructionA statement of what is being worked for or desired in instruction – explicit statements of what students are expected to be able to do as a result of instructionEducational objectives – explicit statements of what students are expected to be able to do as a result of instruction

20. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives – a classification of objects according to a set of principles or lawsTaxonomy – a classification of objects according to a set of principles or laws Bloom’s Taxonomy developed to show higher- order thinking skills, i.e. skills and abilities that go beyond just recall and comprehensionBloom’s Taxonomy developed to show higher- order thinking skills, i.e. skills and abilities that go beyond just recall and comprehension Bloom’s Taxonomy categories include: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, evaluation synthesisBloom’s Taxonomy categories include: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, evaluation synthesis Instructional Goals

21. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition Your Turn Choose an instructional topic and compose a question on that topic forChoose an instructional topic and compose a question on that topic for each level of Bloom’s Taxonomy

22. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition Anderson & Krathwohl, colleagues of Bloom’s, revised the taxonomy to include categories more closely related to classroom life Bloom KnowledgeKnowledge ComprehensionComprehension ApplicationApplication AnalysisAnalysis EvaluationEvaluation SynthesisSynthesisAnderson/Krathwohl RememberingRemembering UnderstandingUnderstanding ApplyingApplying AnalyzingAnalyzing EvaluatingEvaluating CreatingCreating Instructional Goals

23. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition Translating Goals and Objectives into Plans Planning for instruction involves:Planning for instruction involves: –Setting objectives or goals –Choosing a way to achieve those goals –Making decisions concerning the details of the approach –Making changes as the plan is carried out –Evaluating the plan after it has been carried out in order to be better prepared the next time around

24. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition Planning on and Planning for: Instructional Time and Scheduling – an approach to scheduling at the middle and high school levels that allows for larger blocks of time to be schedules for subjects, usually with fewer blocks per weekBlock scheduling – an approach to scheduling at the middle and high school levels that allows for larger blocks of time to be schedules for subjects, usually with fewer blocks per week Translating Goals and Objectives into Plans

25. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition Levels of Planning for Instruction Plan for the yearPlan for the year Make seasonal plans for the yearMake seasonal plans for the year Plan instructional unitsPlan instructional units Have daily lesson plansHave daily lesson plans Translating Goals and Objectives into Plans

26. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition Lesson Plan Evaluation What is the teacher trying to accomplish?What is the teacher trying to accomplish? What assumptions does this plan make about the students?What assumptions does this plan make about the students? How does the lesson plan view students as learners?How does the lesson plan view students as learners? Could I teach this lesson from this plan? Would I want to?Could I teach this lesson from this plan? Would I want to? Are the assessment procedures adequate?Are the assessment procedures adequate? How likely are students to respond positively to this plan?How likely are students to respond positively to this plan? How difficult would it be to carry out this plan?How difficult would it be to carry out this plan? Translating Goals and Objectives into Plans

27. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition Planning for Students with Special Needs Consider instructional goals and objectivesConsider instructional goals and objectives Form a cohesive instruction plan for your goals for the class as a whole and for the goals of the special needs student as laid out in the IEPForm a cohesive instruction plan for your goals for the class as a whole and for the goals of the special needs student as laid out in the IEP Consider the resources available for students with special needs, e.g., teacher’s aideConsider the resources available for students with special needs, e.g., teacher’s aide Allow students with special needs extra time to complete assignments or to do them at home with parentsAllow students with special needs extra time to complete assignments or to do them at home with parents Modify assignments to align with the IEPModify assignments to align with the IEP Allow students with special needs to work with other students, either one on one or in a groupAllow students with special needs to work with other students, either one on one or in a group Translating Goals and Objectives into Plans

28. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition Approaches to Teaching Promoting meaningful learningPromoting meaningful learning Discovery learningDiscovery learning Direct instructionDirect instruction

29. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition Promoting Meaningful Learning – learner acquires knowledge of the structure of knowledge set forth by the teacherReception learning – learner acquires knowledge of the structure of knowledge set forth by the teacher – students work on their own to grasp a conceptDiscovery-based learning – students work on their own to grasp a concept – teacher provides an exposition of how a particular set of information is structured and organizedExpository teaching – teacher provides an exposition of how a particular set of information is structured and organized

30. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition – broad introductory statement of the information that will be presented in a lessonAdvance organizer – broad introductory statement of the information that will be presented in a lesson – broad statement that reminds the student of what he or she already knowsComparative organizer – broad statement that reminds the student of what he or she already knows – broad statement of what is to be learned in a lessonExpository organizer – broad statement of what is to be learned in a lesson Promoting Meaningful Learning

31. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition Discovery Learning – abstraction of a general principle from a variety of examplesInductive reasoning – abstraction of a general principle from a variety of examples – students work under the guidance of a capable partner to grasp a concept or understand a lessonGuided discovery – students work under the guidance of a capable partner to grasp a concept or understand a lesson

32. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition Direct Instruction A systematic form of instruction that is used for mastery of basic skills and factsA systematic form of instruction that is used for mastery of basic skills and facts –Review the previous material –Present new material –Provide guided practice –Provide feedback –Provide independent practice –Review weekly and monthly

33. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition Teaching Tactics Providing explanationsProviding explanations Providing feedbackProviding feedback Asking questionsAsking questions

34. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition Providing Explanations Four types of explanations (Leinhardt, 1993) – how to do somethingCommon explanations – how to do something – from specific disciplines and formal in structureDisciplinary explanations – from specific disciplines and formal in structure – explanations you can rehearse to yourself to make sure you understand somethingSelf-explanations – explanations you can rehearse to yourself to make sure you understand something – provided by teachers, texts, or other materialsInstructional explanations – provided by teachers, texts, or other materials

35. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition Your Turn Write an example of each kind of explanationWrite an example of each kind of explanation Tell how they are different and how they are alikeTell how they are different and how they are alike How might these different explanations influence student learning?How might these different explanations influence student learning?

36. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition Providing Feedback Feedback can enhance:Feedback can enhance: – – tasks in which the learner provides a simple response to a stimulus –Response learning – tasks in which the learner provides a simple response to a stimulus – – learning a new rule for classification by generating the rule from examples –Concept learning – learning a new rule for classification by generating the rule from examples – – acquiring a new procedure –Skill learning – acquiring a new procedure

37. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition Asking Questions Teachers ask questions toTeachers ask questions to –Focus students’ attention –Provide rehearsal of information –Identify misconceptions –Stimulate change –Elaborate on information Participation approach – teacher asks question and selects student to respondParticipation approach – teacher asks question and selects student to respond

38. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition Promoting Learning through Homework Teachers’ influence extend beyond the classroom through the assignment of homeworkTeachers’ influence extend beyond the classroom through the assignment of homework Homework provides additional practice for or extends the work done in classHomework provides additional practice for or extends the work done in class Most students do homework on a regular basisMost students do homework on a regular basis

39. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition A Taxonomy of Homework Three types of homework: Homework based on material taught in class –Homework based on material taught in class – review, practice, rehearsal Homework based on new material –Homework based on new material – preparation, experience Homework that expands on and extends beyond the classroom learning –Homework that expands on and extends beyond the classroom learning – exploration, learning experience, expression

40. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition Developing Homework Policies How much homework will I assign each night?How much homework will I assign each night? When and how should students hand it in?When and how should students hand it in? What will I do when students do not do homework?What will I do when students do not do homework? How will I respond when students hand in homework late?How will I respond when students hand in homework late? A Taxonomy of Homework

41. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition Developing Homework Policies (continued) What kind of help can the student seek with the homework?What kind of help can the student seek with the homework? What is the proper role of the parent with regard to homework?What is the proper role of the parent with regard to homework? What help can students expect from me?What help can students expect from me? How will I evaluate the homework? How will I evaluate the homework? What should students do if they often have difficulty with homework?What should students do if they often have difficulty with homework? A Taxonomy of Homework

42. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition Getting Homework Done Tactics to increase rates of homework completion:Tactics to increase rates of homework completion: –Purpose: provide students with a purpose for the homework –Policy: establish and communicate expectations –Design: consider students and their interests –Support: consider what supports are available to students –Feedback: provide feedback about students’ efforts

43. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition Homework Strategies for Student with Disabilities Give clear and appropriate assignmentsGive clear and appropriate assignments Make home work accommodationsMake home work accommodations Ensure clear home/school communicationEnsure clear home/school communication Teach study skillsTeach study skills Use a homework calendarUse a homework calendar

44. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition Homework: Cultural and Socioeconomic Differences Economic difficultiesEconomic difficulties Extended, blended, and other types of families need to be consideredExtended, blended, and other types of families need to be considered Language differences can hinder communicationLanguage differences can hinder communication Cultural differences can go hand-in- hand with language differencesCultural differences can go hand-in- hand with language differences

45. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition Teaching Strategies Involving Peer Learning Peer learning enhances critical thinking, conceptual understanding, and other higher order skillsPeer learning enhances critical thinking, conceptual understanding, and other higher order skills Collaborative and co-operative learning in classrooms can provide social and emotional support for studentsCollaborative and co-operative learning in classrooms can provide social and emotional support for students Success of peer learning influenced by:Success of peer learning influenced by: –Size/makeup of group –Rewards for completing the task –Connecting peer learning to instructional goals –How assessed

46. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition Theoretical Orientations toward Learning from Peers – condition in which group members’ goal accomplishments are linked togetherInterdependence – condition in which group members’ goal accomplishments are linked together – how students relate to others who are also working toward a particular goalGoal Structure – how students relate to others who are also working toward a particular goal – – condition that exists when, in order for one person to succeed in accomplishing his or her goals, others must fail to meet their goals –Negative interdependence – condition that exists when, in order for one person to succeed in accomplishing his or her goals, others must fail to meet their goals – – condition that exists when the success of each individual depends on all group members being successful –Positive interdependence – condition that exists when the success of each individual depends on all group members being successful

47. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition The Social-Motivational Perspective Relies on use of rewards or recognition for group productivity, e.g., Student-Tournament-Achievement- Divisions (STAD)Relies on use of rewards or recognition for group productivity, e.g., Student-Tournament-Achievement- Divisions (STAD) – – students grouped into teams of 4 to 6 –Before lesson – students grouped into teams of 4 to 6 – – teacher presents information using various instructional strategies –During lesson – teacher presents information using various instructional strategies – – students work together to learn –Peer learning – students work together to learn – – teacher gives each student individual test –After lesson – teacher gives each student individual test Problem with STAD: difficult to maintain interdependence if students believe they are unequal contributors to group’s performanceProblem with STAD: difficult to maintain interdependence if students believe they are unequal contributors to group’s performance Theoretical Orientations toward Learning from Peers

48. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition The Social-Motivational Perspective (continued) Teacher ensures individual accountability through improvement pointsTeacher ensures individual accountability through improvement points –: each student is responsible for improving his or her performance –Individual accountability: each student is responsible for improving his or her performance Use of heterogeneous groupsUse of heterogeneous groups Recognition and reward for group performanceRecognition and reward for group performance Theoretical Orientations toward Learning from Peers

49. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition The Social-Cohesion Perspective Co-operative learningCo-operative learning –Positive interdependence –Face-to-face promotive interaction –Individual accountability and personal responsibility –Interpersonal and small-group skills –Group processing Theoretical Orientations toward Learning from Peers

50. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition Your Turn What aspects of using groups would vary if you chose a social-motivation or social cohesion approach to peer learning?What aspects of using groups would vary if you chose a social-motivation or social cohesion approach to peer learning?

51. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition Tutoring An instructional experience in which one student teaches another student who is less skilledAn instructional experience in which one student teaches another student who is less skilled Some teachers don’t try group learning because of concerns aboutSome teachers don’t try group learning because of concerns about classroom management –Teacher behaviours and management techniques that result in a healthy learning environment, generally free of behaviour problems

52. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition Processes Involved in Tutoring Tutor asks a questionTutor asks a question Student answers a questionStudent answers a question Tutor gives feedback on the answerTutor gives feedback on the answer Tutor and the student collaborate to improve the quality of the answersTutor and the student collaborate to improve the quality of the answers Tutor assesses the student’s understanding of the answerTutor assesses the student’s understanding of the answer

53. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition Tutoring and Students with Special Needs Students with special needs benefit from tutoring and from serving as tutorsStudents with special needs benefit from tutoring and from serving as tutors Peer-assisted learning strategies (PALS)Peer-assisted learning strategies (PALS) –Tutor models and gradually fades –Teacher provides step-by-step feedback –Frequent verbal and written interaction –Opportunities for tutees to apply explanations to subsequent problems –Reciprocity in which students play both roles

54. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition Collaboration, Technology, and Diversity – on-line program that presents real- world issues and asks students to solve a problemWebQuests – on-line program that presents real- world issues and asks students to solve a problem – students working on networked computers with a communal databaseComputer-Supported Intentional Learning Environment (CSILE) and Knowledge forum – students working on networked computers with a communal database – co-operative learning can be used to integrate children from varying backgroundsRace, Ethnicity, and Language – co-operative learning can be used to integrate children from varying backgrounds

55. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition Special Needs and Co-Operative Learning Academically handicapped students achieved more when they were mainstreamed into co- operative learning classes and received support from a special education teacher who collaborated with the general education teacherAcademically handicapped students achieved more when they were mainstreamed into co- operative learning classes and received support from a special education teacher who collaborated with the general education teacher Students with learning disabilities may lack the social skills to participate well in a co- operative taskStudents with learning disabilities may lack the social skills to participate well in a co- operative task

56. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition Learning from Peers: Classroom Practices Discourse quality The kind of tasks on which students work will influence their talkThe kind of tasks on which students work will influence their talk

57. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition Teacher’s Role Preparer of learning activitiesPreparer of learning activities Community builderCommunity builder Task developerTask developer The teacher as modelThe teacher as model Coordinator of activitiesCoordinator of activities EvaluatorEvaluator Learning from Peers: Classroom Practices

58. Educational Psychology, Canadian Edition Classroom Tasks Teachers need to set goals for any taskTeachers need to set goals for any task Group task: – an activity in which a person uses knowledge to reach a specific goal but in which there is no clearly specified way of reaching the goalGroup task: problem solving – an activity in which a person uses knowledge to reach a specific goal but in which there is no clearly specified way of reaching the goal Group worthy tasks require a lot of time and teacher expertiseGroup worthy tasks require a lot of time and teacher expertise Learning from Peers: Classroom Practices

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