1. WRITING AP EQUATIONS AP equation sets are found in the free-response section of the AP test. You are given three sets of reactants and you must write balanced net ionic equations for the reaction that would occur. The equations are of mixed types. You will also answer a short question about each reaction. The section is worth 15 points and is 15 % of the free response grade. Free response is 50% of the total AP test grade.

2. All AP equations "work". In each case, a reaction will occur
All AP equations "work". In each case, a reaction will occur. These equations need to be written in net ionic form. All spectator ions must be left out and all ions must be written in ionic form. All molecular substances and insoluble compounds must be written together (not ionized!). Know your solubility rules!!!

3. Ca(OH)2 and Sr(OH)2 are moderately soluble and can be written together or as ions. Ba(OH)2 is soluble and Mg(OH)2 is insoluble. CaSO4 and SrSO4 are moderately soluble and can be written together or as ions. BaSO4 is insoluble and MgSO4 is soluble.

4. Weak electrolytes, such as acetic acid, are not ionized
Weak electrolytes, such as acetic acid, are not ionized. Solids and pure liquids are written together, also. A saturated solution is written in ionic form while a suspension is written together.

5. Each reaction will usually be worth a total of 5 points.
General guidelines (may not always be true!): One point is given for the correct reactants and two points for all correct products. If a reaction has three products, one point is given for two correct products and two points for all correct products. One point will be given for correct balancing and the final point will be given for correctly and completely answering the question concerning the reaction.

6. The best way to prepare for the equation section of the AP test is to practice lots of equations. The equation sets are similar and some equations show up year after year. Save the reactions that you write and practice them again before the AP test in May.

7. When you are reading an equation, first try to classify it by type
When you are reading an equation, first try to classify it by type. If it says anything about acidic or basic solution, it is redox. If you are totally stuck, look up the compounds in the index of your book or other reference books and try to find information that will help you with the equation. All reactions do not fit neatly into the five types of reactions that you learned in Chemistry I.

8. Double Replacement (metathesis)

9. Two compounds react to form two new compounds
Two compounds react to form two new compounds. No changes in oxidation numbers occur. All double replacement reactions must have a "driving force" that removes a pair of ions from solution.

10. Formation of a precipitate: A precipitate is an insoluble substance formed by the reaction of two aqueous substances. Two ions bond together so strongly that water can not pull them apart. You must know your solubility rules to write these net ionic equations!

11. Ex. Solutions of silver nitrate and lithium bromide are mixed.
AgNO3(aq) + LiBr(aq)  AgBr(s) + LiNO3(aq)
Ag+ + NO3- + Li+ + Br-  AgBr + Li+ +NO3-
Ag+ + Br-  AgBr

12. Formation of a gas: Gases may form directly in a double replacement reaction or can form from the decomposition of a product such as H2CO3 or H2SO3.

13. Ex. Excess hydrochloric acid solution is added to a solution of potassium sulfite.
2HCl(aq) + K2SO3(aq)  H2SO3 H2O(l) + SO2(g) + 2KCl(aq)
2H+ + 2Cl- + 2K+ + SO32-  H2O + SO2 + 2K+ +2Cl-
2H+ + SO32-  H2O + SO2

14. Ex. A solution of sodium hydroxide is added to a solution of ammonium chloride.
NaOH(aq) + NH4Cl(aq)  NaCl(aq) + NH4OH NH3(g) + H2O(l)
Na+ + OH- + NH4+ + Cl- 
Na+ + Cl- + NH3 + H2O
OH- + NH4+  NH3 + H2O

15. Formation of a molecular substance: When a molecular substance such as water or acetic acid is formed, ions are removed from solution and the reaction "works".

16. OH- + H+  H2O (HBr, HCl, and HI are strong acids)
Ex. Dilute solutions of lithium hydroxide and hydrobromic acid are mixed.
LiOH(aq) + HBr(aq)  LiBr(aq) +H2O(l)
Li+ + OH- + H+ + Br-  Li+ +Br- + H2O
OH- + H+  H2O (HBr, HCl, and HI are strong acids)

17. Ex. Gaseous hydrofluoric acid reacts with solid silicon dioxide.
4HF(g) + SiO2(s)  SiF4(g) + 2H2O(l)
4HF + SiO2  SiF4 + 2H2O

18. Single Replacement

19. Reaction where one element displaces another in a compound
Reaction where one element displaces another in a compound. One element is oxidized and another is reduced A + BC  B + AC

20. Active metals replace less active metals or hydrogen from their compounds in aqueous solution. Use an activity series or a reduction potential table to determine activity. The more easily oxidized metal replaces the less easily oxidized metal. The metal with the most negative reduction potential will be the most active.

21. Ex. Magnesium turnings are added to a solution of iron(III) chloride.
3Mg(s) + 2FeCl3(aq) 2Fe(s)+3MgCl2(aq)
3Mg + 2Fe3+ + 6Cl-  2Fe + 3Mg2+ + 6Cl-
3Mg + 2Fe3+  2Fe + 3Mg2+
Always make sure that charge is balanced, as well as mass (atoms)!

22. Ex. Sodium is added to water.
2Na(s) + 2H2O(l)  2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
2Na + 2H2O  2Na+ + 2OH- + H2
Alkali metal demo

23. Active nonmetals replace less active nonmetals from their compounds in aqueous solution. Each halogen will displace less electronegative (heavier) halogens from their binary salts.

24. Ex. Chlorine gas is bubbled into a solution of potassium iodide.
Cl2(g) + 2KI(aq) 2KCl(aq) + I2(s)
Cl2 + 2K+ + 2I-  2K+ + 2Cl- + I2
Cl2 + 2I-  I2 + 2Cl-

25. Anhydrides

26. Anhydride means "without water"
Anhydride means "without water". Water is a reactant in each of these equations.

27. Nonmetallic oxides (acidic anhydrides) plus water yield acids.

28. Ex. Carbon dioxide is bubbled into water.
CO2 + H2O  H2CO3

29. Metallic oxides (basic anhydrides) plus water yield bases.

30. Ex. Solid sodium oxide is added to water.
Na2O + H2O  2Na+ + 2OH-

31. Metallic hydrides (ionic hydrides) plus water yield metallic hydroxides and hydrogen gas.

32. Ex. Solid sodium hydride is added to water.
NaH + H2O 
Na+ + OH- + H2

33. Phosphorus halides react with water to produce an acid of phosphorus (phosphorous acid or phosphoric acid) and a hydrohalic acid. The oxidation number of the phosphorus remains the same in both compounds. Phosphorus oxytrichloride reacts with water to make the same products.

34. Ex. Phosphorus tribromide is added to water.
PBr3 + 3H2O  H3PO3 + 3H++ 3Br-

35. Group I&II nitrides react with water to produce the metallic hydroxide and ammonia.

36. Amines react with water to produce alkylammonium ions and hydroxide ions.

37. Ex. Methylamine gas is bubbled into distilled water.
CH3NH2 + H2O  CH3NH3+ + OH-

38. OXIDATION-REDUCTION REACTIONS

39. Redox reactions involve the transfer of electrons
Redox reactions involve the transfer of electrons. The oxidation numbers of at least two elements must change. Single replacement, some combination and some decomposition reactions are redox reactions.

40. To predict the products of a redox reaction, look at the reagents given to see if there is both an oxidizing agent and a reducing agent. When a problem mentions an acidic or basic solution, it is probably redox.

41. Common oxidizing agents Products formed MnO4- in acidic solution
Common oxidizing agents Products formed MnO4- in acidic solution Mn2+ MnO2 in acidic solution Mn2+ MnO4- in neutral or basic solution MnO2(s) Cr2O72- in acidic solution Cr3+ HNO3, concentrated NO2 HNO3, dilute NO H2SO4, hot, concentrated SO2

42. Common oxidizing agents Products formed metal-ic ions metal-ous ions free halogens halide ions Na2O NaOH HClO Cl-  H2O H2O

43. Common Products reducing agents formed  halide ions free halogen  free metals metal ions sulfite ions or SO sulfate ions nitrite ions nitrate ions  free halogens, dilute basic solution hypohalite ions free halogens, conc. basic solution halate ions  metal-ous ions metal-ic ions  H2O O C2O CO2

44. 5Sn2+ + 16H+ + 2MnO4-  5Sn4+ + 2Mn2+ + 8H2O
Ex. A solution of tin(II) chloride is added to an acidified solution of potassium permanganate.
5Sn H+ + 2MnO4-  5Sn4+ + 2Mn2+ + 8H2O

45. Ex. A solution of potassium iodide is added to an acidified solution of potassium dichromate.
6I- + 14H+ + Cr2O72-  2Cr3+ + 3I2 + 7H2O

46. Ex. Hydrogen peroxide solution is added to a solution of iron(II) sulfate.
H2O2 + 2Fe2+ +2H+
2Fe3+ + 2H2O

47. Ex. A piece of iron is added to a solution of iron(III) sulfate.
Fe + 2Fe3 + 3Fe2+

48. Tricky redox reactions that appear to be ordinary single replacement reactions: Hydrogen reacts with a hot metallic oxide to produce the elemental metal and water.

49. Ex. Hydrogen gas is passed over hot copper(II) oxide.
H2(g) + CuO(s)  Cu(s)+ H2O(l)

50. A metal sulfide reacts with oxygen to produce the metallic oxide and sulfur dioxide.

51. Chlorine gas reacts with dilute sodium hydroxide to produce sodium hypochlorite, sodium chloride and water. (disproportionation reaction)

52. Copper reacts with concentrated sulfuric acid to produce copper(II) sulfate, sulfur dioxide, and water. (Cu doesn’t react with dilute sulfuric acid!)

53. Copper reacts with dilute nitric acid to produce copper(II) nitrate, nitrogen monoxide and water.

54. Copper reacts with concentrated nitric acid to produce copper(II) nitrate, nitrogen dioxide and water.

55. COMPLEX ION REACTIONS

56. Complex ion- the combination of a central metal ion and its ligands Ligand- group bonded to a metal ion

57. Coordination compound- a neutral compound containing complex ions [Co(NH3)6]Cl3 (NH3 is the ligand, [Co(NH3)6]3+is the complex ion)

58. Common complex ions formed in AP equations:

59. Complex ion Name Formed from: [Al(OH)4]- tetrahydroxoaluminate ion (Al or Al(OH)3 or Al3++ OH-) [Ag(NH3)2]+ diamminesilver(I) ion (Ag+ + NH3) [Zn(OH)4] tetrahydroxozincate ion (Zn(OH)2 + OH-) [Zn(NH3)4] 2+ tetramminezinc ion (Zn2+ + NH3) [Cu(NH3)4]2+ tetramminecopper(II) ion (Cu2+ + NH3) [Cd(NH3)4] 2+ tetramminecadmium(II) ion (Cd2++ NH3) [FeSCN] thiocyanoiron(III) ion (Fe3+ + SCN-) [Ag(CN)2]- dicyanoargentate(I) ion (Ag+ and CN-) [Ag(Cl)2] dichloroargentate(I) ion (AgCl and Cl-)

60. Adding an acid to a complex ion will break it up
Adding an acid to a complex ion will break it up. If HCl is added to a silver complex, AgCl(s) is formed. If an acid is added to an ammonia complex, NH4+ is formed.

61. Ex. Excess ammonia is added to a solution of zinc nitrate.
4NH3 + Zn2+  [Zn(NH3)4]2+
(Other coordination numbers are acceptable, as long as correct charge is given.)

62. [Ag(NH3)2]+ + Cl- + 2H+  AgCl + 2NH4+
Ex. A solution of diamminesilver(I) chloride is treated with dilute nitric acid.
[Ag(NH3)2]+ + Cl- + 2H+ 
AgCl + 2NH4+

63. DECOMPOSITION REACTIONS

64. Reaction where a compound breaks down into two or more elements or compounds. Heat, electrolysis, or a catalyst is usually necessary.

65. A compound may break down to produce two elements. Ex
A compound may break down to produce two elements. Ex. Molten sodium chloride is electrolyzed.
2NaCl(l) 2Na + Cl2

66. A compound may break down to produce an element and a compound. Ex
A compound may break down to produce an element and a compound. Ex. A solution of hydrogen peroxide is decomposed catalytically. 2H2O2  2H2O + O2

67. A compound may break down to produce two compounds. Ex
A compound may break down to produce two compounds. Ex. Solid magnesium carbonate is heated MgCO3  MgO + CO2

68. Metallic carbonates break down to yield metallic oxides and carbon dioxide.

69. Metallic chlorates break down to yield metallic chlorides and oxygen.

70. Hydrogen peroxide decomposes into water and oxygen.

71. Ammonium carbonate decomposes into ammonia, water and carbon dioxide.

72. Sulfurous acid decomposes into water and sulfur dioxide.

73. Carbonic acid decomposes into water and carbon dioxide.

74. ADDITION REACTIONS

75. Two or more elements or compounds combine to form a single product.

76. A Group IA or IIA metal may combine with a nonmetal to make a salt.

77. A piece of lithium metal is dropped into a container of nitrogen gas.
6Li + N2  2Li3N

78. Two nonmetals may combine to form a molecular compound
Two nonmetals may combine to form a molecular compound. The oxidation number of the less electronegative element is often variable depending upon conditions. Generally, a higher oxidation state of one nonmetal is obtained when reacting with an excess of the other nonmetal.

79. P4 + 6Cl2  4PCl3 limited Cl P4 + 10Cl2  4PCl5 excess Cl

80. When an element combines with a compound, you can usually sum up all of the elements on the product side. Ex. PCl3 + Cl2  PCl5

81. Two compounds combine to form a single product. Ex
Two compounds combine to form a single product. Ex. Sulfur dioxide gas is passed over solid calcium oxide. SO2 + CaO  CaSO3

82. Ex. The gases boron trifluoride and ammonia are mixed
Ex. The gases boron trifluoride and ammonia are mixed. Lewis Acid-Base Reaction BF3 + NH3  H3NBF F H H F F-B + :N-H  H-N-B-F F H H F

83. A metallic oxide plus carbon dioxide yields a metallic carbonate
A metallic oxide plus carbon dioxide yields a metallic carbonate. (Carbon keeps the same oxidation state)

84. A metallic oxide plus sulfur dioxide yields a metallic sulfite
A metallic oxide plus sulfur dioxide yields a metallic sulfite. (Sulfur keeps the same oxidation state)

85. A metallic oxide plus water yields a metallic hydroxide
A metallic oxide plus water yields a metallic hydroxide. A nonmetallic oxide plus water yields an acid.

86. ACID-BASE NEUTRALIZATION REACTIONS

87. Acids react with bases to produce salts and water
Acids react with bases to produce salts and water. One mole of hydrogen ions react with one mole of hydroxide ions to produce one mole of water.

88. Watch out for information about quantities of each reactant
Watch out for information about quantities of each reactant! Remember which acids are strong (ionize completely) and which are weak (write as molecule).

89. Sulfuric acid (strong acid) can be written as H+ and SO42- or as H+ and HSO4-. Concentrated sulfuric acid is left together because there is not enough water present for it to ionize.

90. H+ + HSO42 - + Ba2+ + 2OH-  BaSO4 + 2H2O
Ex. A solution of sulfuric acid is added to a solution of barium hydroxide until the same number of moles of each compound has been added.
H+ + HSO Ba2+ + 2OH-  BaSO4 + 2H2O

91. (S2- does not exist in water)
Ex. Hydrogen sulfide gas is bubbled through excess potassium hydroxide solution.
H2S + OH-  H2O + HS-
(S2- does not exist in water)

92. Watch out for substances that react with water before reacting with an acid or a base. These are two step reactions.

93. H2SO3 and 1 H2O cancel. SO2 + Ca2++ 2OH-  CaSO3 + H2O
Sulfur dioxide gas is bubbled into an excess of a saturated solution of calcium hydroxide.
2-step reaction!
SO2 + H2O  H2SO3
H2SO3 + Ca2+ +2OH-2H2O + CaSO3
H2SO3 and 1 H2O cancel.
SO2 + Ca2++ 2OH-  CaSO3 + H2O
Add steps together!

94. COMBUSTION REACTIONS

95. -Elements or compounds combine with oxygen to produce oxides of each element.

96. Hydrocarbons or alcohols combine with oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water.

97. Nonmetallic hydrides combine with oxygen to form oxides and water.

98. Nonmetallic sulfides combine with oxygen to form oxides and sulfur dioxide.

99. Ex. Carbon disulfide vapor is burned in excess oxygen.
CS2 + 3O2  CO2 + 2SO2

100. Ex. Ethanol is burned completely in air.
C2H5OH + 3O2  2CO2 + 3H2O

101. Ammonia combines with limited oxygen to produce NO and water and with excess oxygen to produce NO2 and water.