1. 1 Understanding People at Work Session 3: Understanding Motivation The session contents: The Significance of Motivation. Motivation Theory: Human Need &Satisfaction Outcomes: Expectancy Theory. The psychological contract.

2. 2 The aims of this session are to: Stress the linkage between motivations, needs, and desires. To highlight the connection between outcomes, rewards and motivation. Identify the relationship between motivation and psychological contract. Recognize the limitations of any one approach to motivation.

3. 3 1- The Significance of Motivation: The concept of motivation addresses: what leads people to work well and hard, to persist and overcome obstacles, to engage with and be eager about their work. Example 3.1 Activity 3.1

4. 4 It is helpful to think about your own motivation by focus on what is called Critical incident analysis: Analyzing particular events from the past to help explain and/or predict reactions, behaviors or opinions related to things that are happening currently or might happen in the future. Activity 3.2

5. 5 2- Motivation Theory: Human needs and satisfaction A useful way of thinking about motivation is to begin from the view that our behavior springs from shared human needs that must be satisfied. Once managers understand human needs, they can arrange the workplace in such a way that workers are motivated and can move towards satisfying these human needs.

6. 6 Hawthorne studies and the social needs model: Hawthorne studies carried out at the Hawthorne works of the Western Electric Company in Chicago between 1924 and 1932, by the Australian academic, Elton Mayo (1933). It’s revolutionised social science thinking by demonstrating the overriding influence of social factors on workplace behavior. First stage: the illumination experiments to show the relationship between the amount and quality of lighting and the efficiency of workers. Second part: was the relay assembly test room study which focused on a small group of female workers, 13 periods of work studied during which changes were made to the hours of work, tea breaks and rest periods. the results initially production was increased and this increase was maintained.

7. 7 A social model needs was based on at least two essential assumptions: Work represents an important mechanism through which people basic social needs are met. It provides a source of identity and an opportunity to meet other people, develop status and establish social relations. Individuals respond more to pressures created within their social group. Managerial controls are effective only to the extent that they influence the achievement of social needs. Managers need to arrange work so that it meets the need of people and not just the need of production help employees to meet their social needs. individual need are social and not just economic.

8. 8 Motivation theories There are five Motivation's theories in this session: 1.Maslow's theory 2.Hertzberg at el 3.Expectancy theory 4.Adams' equity theory 5.Psychological contract

9. 9 Maslow(1954)developed the idea of a Hierarchy of needs A motivation theory developed by Maslow which explains that individuals are driven by a desire to satisfy a range of needs.These form a hierarchy of five categories & the suggestion is that unless lower level needs are satisfied first, higher level ones cannot be addressed or satisfied.

10. 10 Maslow hierarchy from a basic level upwards is: Physiological needs: food, drinks and shelter. Safety needs: protection against danger and threat. Social needs: love, affection and acceptance as part of a social group. Esteem needs: to have high self-esteem and the respect of others (prestige, status). Self-actualization needs: to realize our potential and develop skills, to become what we believe we are capable of becoming.

11. 11 One of implications of Maslow theory is that the higher-order needs for esteem and self-actualization provide the greatest motivation because they grow in strength after the other are satisfied.The lower order needs weaken once they satisfied. This suggests that the pattern of rewards should be shaped to help people progress through these levels. Practically, it suggests that the role of management should be concerned with enabling individuals to find meaning in their work and develop to the best of their abilities. Table 3.1 simple prescriptions based on a hierarchy of needs Masslow needs hierarchy has been criticized on two counts (p - 53)..

12. 12 Herzberg et al. (1959): They asked people to recall times when they had felt especially satisfied and motivated by their work and times when they had felt particularly dissatisfied and demotivated, then asked their subjects to describe what factors had caused these feelings. The researchers found that two entirely different sets of factors emerged. Herzberg proposed a two-dimensional model of motivation which described motivation factors & hygiene factors.

13. 13 Hygiene factors : The factors which will demotivate staff if they are absent or unsatisfactory, but which in themselves do not act as long –term motivators. Supervision. Working conditions. Interpersonal relationships. Pay and job security. Company policies. These factors would help to remove dissatisfaction but it would not increase satisfaction. According to Herzberg hygiene factors play little part in motivating employees.

14. 14 Motivation factors: The factors which motivate people to work to meet personal, group and/or organizational goals. Achievement. Recognition. The work itself. Responsibility. Advancement and growth. An important point is the suggestion that demotivators vary in duration of effect. (example p-55)

15. 15 Herzberg et al. (1959):

16. 16 The discussion of Herzberg raises some important general points about motivation at work: You can increase satisfaction by enabling people to take responsibility for what they do and how they do it, and by giving them scope to achieve and advance in their roles. You can reduce dissatisfaction by having effective organizational policies and procedures, paying workers well, improving the working environment and so on. But improvement of these factors will not motivate people at work better except perhaps in the very short term. The distinction between motivators and hygiene factors is helpful to managers because it shows the potentially powerful role of intrinsic (basic) rewards that evolve from the work itself. As with all motivation theories,the model has drawn both support &criticism (p-56).

17. 17 Out comes: Expectancy theory: The theory that an important factor in people’s motivation is the perceived link between the effort they put into work and the rewards they receive for it. Expectancy theory focuses on the link between effort and reward. For a reward to affect a person decision to exert effort, that person must believe that the effort will increase the likelihood of obtaining the reward. (link between effort and reward and how that link could be probabilistic and not direct). Figure 3.2 Figure 3.3

18. 18 Expectancy theory is concerned less with the nature of the particular rewards/costs as a way of explaining motivation and more with the links with performance and effort. If the links are clear and strong, a reward/cost will have a powerful motivating effect, if the links are weak or absent, it will have no power to motivate. To summaries, if you want to improve motivation at work, expectancy theory implies that you need to consider three distinct factors: The link between effort and performance. The link between performance and rewards/costs. The types of reward/cost available.

19. 19 Linking effort and performance: The weaker link between effort and performance the less motivation will be in an organization. Expectancy theory suggests that any attempt to improving the motivation will be fail if attention is not paid to the relationship between effort & performance. Factors affecting the strength of the link between effort and performance : Ability & Skill Goals Resources Time Job design

20. 20 There is one class of rewards/costs that by its very nature is closely tide to performance because it results directly from the work itself, these are called Intrinsic rewards/costs: The rewards and costs derived from or incurred (earned) through work. Such outcomes depend on the perceptions, values and interests of the individual, and come from within rather than from any other person (they don’t have to be given by somebody else). Examples of Intrinsic costs are stress, pressure, time spent at work rather than at home. Examples of Intrinsic rewards include a sense of achievement,a feeling of having learned something or having performed a worthwhile job (enjoyment,satisfaction&leearing).

21. 21 Extrinsic rewards/costs: The rewards received & costs incurred (not necessarily financial) by an employee that are provided by some other person. They include the offer or withholding of such benefits as pay increase, development and training opportunities and promotions. (Are those which have to be given by someone else). (what organizations formally provide)

22. 22 Equity Theory : The theory developed by ADAMS that people compare the efforts they put into their work, and the rewards they get from it, with those of others, and adapt their behaviour to achieve what they perceive to be fair in terms of the relationship between the two. Adams proposed in his development of equity theory that individuals compare the relationship between their inputs and the outcomes with those of other people and their own past experience ( Example 3.2).. Expectancy theory offers a number of valuable lessons about motivation (P -60\61). The expectancy& the other motivation theories emerged at a time when economic &political conditions were quite different, TIMES HAVE CHANGED.

23. 23 4-The psychological contract: The agreement between two parties, such as an employer and an employee, that covers terms and conditions of the employment relationship. These will include the expectations that each one has of the other and may form part of a formal contract of employment. A psychological contract usually also covers other aspects of the relationship, which may or may not be documented. (P -62) For example,in return for performing well in a job,an employee may expect rewards in the form of training, additional pay.

24. 24 The psychological contract is a ‘met expectations’ model that considers the fit between expectations of employees and employers. (figure 3.5) These expectations can be transactional, such as pay or hours, or they can be relational,such as trust &commitment. Transactional expectations: As part of the psychological contract between employer and employee, expectations that the relationship between them will include such factors as pay and other conditions of employment in return for the work undertaken.

25. 25 Relational expectations : As part of the psychological contract between employee and employer, expectations that the relationship between them will be based on such factors as trust, honesty, equity.. Relational expectations cause problems because of their intangibility.How do you communicate respect, trust,&commitment to another party?

26. 26 So you need to understand and manage mutual expectations. There is no universal answer are provided by any of the approaches to what motivates different people in different work contexts.

27. 27 Session 4: Job design Contents: Are jobs really designed? The job characteristics model The socio-technical systems approach Employee involvement and empowerment

28. 28 This session addresses the way jobs are designed and who they might be redesigned to increase employee satisfaction, productivity and motivation. The aims of this session are to: Evaluate the job characteristics model and its implications for job design. Explain that job develops overtime and that this has implications for motivation. Examine critically current practice in job design.

29. 29 Are jobs really designed? Job design: The way in which of tasks,duties, responsibilities and accountabilities are combined to make up a particular job of work. ( Is concerned with how tasks are co-coordinated in order to create complete jobs. It looks at how work might be organized or reorganized to meet the social needs of individuals and the operational needs of organizations). Activity 4.1

30. 30 A number of factors may influence changes in jobs. Some changes are the result of broad organizational factors in contrast, other changes can be the result of external events. It is good practice for a manager to be proactive and to review jobs periodically to see how they have developed rather than waiting until problems arise.

31. 31 There are certain critical times for reviewing jobs and their content: When major organizational changes are taking place. When recruitment is about to take place. During an annual appraisal (assessment), this gives employees an opportunity to review their jobs with their managers or colleagues.

32. 32 The job characteristics model : A method of describing a job, originally developed by Hackman and Oldham (1976), by analyzing its key dimensions, how these contribute to the psychological states of the job holder, and how these states in turn affect the outcomes for the job holder of doing the work. This model remains significant because of the inclusion of job characteristics that looks at the relationship between core job characteristics, Employee’s psychological states and key outcomes. Figure 4.1 the job characteristics model

33. 33 In the following we will address the Core job dimensions : The three elements defined by Hackman& Oldham in their job characteristics model which enable job design to be undertaken in a structured& rational way. 1-Skill variety: the degree to which a job includes a variety of activities and therefore requires the jobholder to use a number of different skills and talents. 2-Task identity: the degree to which a job requires completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work. It is about doing a job from beginning to end. 3-Task significance: the degree to which a job has an impact on the lives or work of other people, whether within the organization or in the external environment.

34. 34 Meaningfulness at work: The core job dimensions Skill variety, Task identity, Task significance together shape the extent to which work is felt to be meaningful, valuable and worthwhile to the individual. Autonomy: The degree to which a job provides freedom, independence and discretion to the individual. Feedback : Acknowledgement of a person’s. It help people to form an image of themselves and how well they are doing.

35. 35 Feedback can be either intrinsic or extrinsic: Extrinsic feedback: comes from outside the job, such as praise from manager when a difficult situation has been handled well. Intrinsic feedback: comes from knowing that you personally have been effective when people are aware of their own performance, recognize their strengths and weaknesses and take appropriate action to modify them as they feel appropriate.

36. 36 Calculating the motivating potential of a job: Motivating potential score (MPS): A technique for assessing how motivating a job will be for the holder. The job characteristics model of Hackman &Oldham calculates an MPS based on the five dimensions. MPS = (Skill Varity +Task identity +Task significance) / 3 × Autonomy × Feedback

37. 37 Three principles of job design emerge : 1-People with high scores on all dimensions are generally speaking –more motivated, satisfied and productive than those who do not. 2-Job dimensions influence personal and work outcomes by shaping psychological states. 3-In the model, one zero score leads to an overall score of zero.

38. 38 The model suggests that the motivating potential of jobs can be increased by employing certain practices to enrich the working life of employees : Job enrichment: Adding variety to a job to make it more interesting, demanding, challenging and developmental for the job holder, for example : Combining tasks. Forming natural work units. Giving increased responsibility. Vertical loading. Opening feedback channel.

39. 39 The social-technical systems approach: An approach to job design and job analysis developed by the researchers at the Tavistock Institute in the UK, which suggests that each job exists within a broader context consisting of, among other things, the technology and the culture of the group and organization. This means that any actions relating to designing or redesigning jobs need to take account of this broader context, and to recognize the social and technical factors that influence the work and the way it is done.

40. 40 The approach was based on the notion that organizations can be thought of as open systems. Open systems have the following characteristics: 1-They are able to self-regulate. 2-They are flexible and adaptive. 3-They only survive through their interactions with external environment from which they obtain resources.

41. 41 Principles of the socio-technical approach: 1-As the parts of the system are independent, the design of one part of the system should not dictate the design of other parts. 2-Job redesign should not take place in a way that is totally removed from wider factors such as culture &group identity. Changing one part of the open system has implications for other parts. 3-Redesign should involve employees.

42. 42 The social-technical approach has had a considerable impact in practice with the idea of ‘semi-autonomous group working’ Semi-autonomous work group: A group of people working together, who to a large extent, monitor and control their own activities, with little control imposed of them from outside. Semi-autonomous work group are part of the humanization of work movement approach to job design, although they have their limitations.

43. 43 Employee involvement: An approach to management whereby the opinions and ideas of employees are sought and their participation is encouraged the ultimate manifestation of such involvement is the delegation of some authority to employees for taking action or marking decisions. The two important forms (practices) of employee involvement are: Empowerment: The transfer of responsibility and decision making power to individual through the delegation of authority and resources. Quality circles: A group of employees who meet regularly to identify and try to resolve issues relating to the quality of the products or services provided to customers. participation may come from various part of the organization.

44. 44 Quality circles have the following seven characteristics: 1-Membership is voluntary. 2-Meetings are regular. 3-Group usually small < 15. 4-Membership is drawn from people who do the same or similar tasks. 5-Leadership and structure can be decided by the group. 6-Group identifies problems and causes. 7-Group develops and produces solutions.

45. 45 TMA:1 last term Prepare a report of up to 900 words addressed to your tutor in which you do the following: (a) “Herzberg” introduced a new concept for the motivation theory. Explain and analyze the factors he identified, then give an example from your experience at work applying his theory. (6 marks) 360 words (b) What are the characteristics of each: open communication and closed communication environments. And which of them you believe is applied in your organization or group. (6 marks)360 Words (c) Identify the three types of listening in your workplace. (3 marks) 180 words