1. Peacekeeping & Peacemaking
1920s

2. “The Gap in the Bridge” 1919

3. What did the League do right?
What actions would be considered a success for the League of Nations? Why?

4. Aaland Islands 1921…located about equidistant between Finland & Sweden.
Had traditionally belonged to Finland, but the people wanted to be part of Sweden.
Finland & Sweden asked the League to help solve the issue
Solution… remain
with Finland, but
no weapons
ever be there
Solution still
working today

5. Upper Silesia 1921… according a to the Versailles Treaty, the p people living there would vote w whether to be part of Weimar
Germany or of Poland
When the vote occurred, it was close and rioting occurred between the two sides
The League was asked to solve the problem; France supported Poland, GB supported Germany; more people had voted to join with Germany
Solution was to divide Silesia between Germany and Poland
All sides accepted the decision

6. Memel, Lithuania 1921… it was a port city that the League administered, but the citizens were Lithuanian ; the French administered Memel
In 1923, the new government of Lithuania invaded and took over the port
The League gave the area around Memel to Lithuania, but made Memel
an international port
Was this a success?
Lithuania gained the port
by force; the people in
Memel did not have a choice

7. During a war between Greece & Turkey, 1,400,000 refugees were created
The League sent doctors from the Health Org. to stop the spread of cholera and typhoid
The League also provided money for rebuilding homes, farms, providing seeds and tools
By 1926, 600,000 of the refugees had jobs
The League helped settle a border dispute between Greece and Bulgaria, which both countries accepted

8. 1925 British Cartoon 'Just then came down a monstrous dove
 Whose force was purely moral
 Which turned the heroes' hearts to love
 And made them drop their quarrel.'

9. The League helped 500,000 prisoners of war to get home, primarily through the efforts of Norwegian Fridtjof Nansen
It helped free 200,000 slaves in Africa
Worked to prevent malaria and leprosy
Closed down four Swiss companies selling drugs
Sent experts to help Austria (1922) and Hungary (1924) with the financial reconstruction of their economies
Held numerous conferences on technical issues, such as communication and transportation and on social issues, such as trafficking in women & children

10. League Failures
Vilna 1920… Vilna had originally been the capital of Lithuania in the Middle Ages and Lithuania wanted it to be its capital again
Poland believed they should receive Vilna, since more than 30% of the population was Polish
Poland invaded Vilna
Lithuania appealed to the League, but Poland did not give the city to Lithuania
Eventually, the League just gave Vilna to Poland

11. Corfu 1923… Italian members of a commission working to settle disputes between Greece & Albania were killed
Mussolini blamed the Greeks, demanded the people responsible be found, executed and Greece pay compensation to Italy
Greece refused; Italy bombed and took over the island of Corfu
Greece appealed to the League
The League said Italy should leave Corfu; Mussolini said Italy would leave the League
The League told Greece to pay the fine, which they did, then Italy gave back Corfu

12. Anglo-American Treaty of Guarantee June 1919
At the Paris Peace Conference, Clemenceau wanted to remove the Rhineland area from Germany and create an independent country that would be neutral or dependent on France
David Lloyd George came up with a compromise
In exchange for not changing the border, Britain & the US would guarantee France’s border against German aggression
Clemenceau considered the agreement the “keystone of European peace”

13. The British Parliament passed the Treaty, but following it depended on the US passing the treaty
The US Senate refused to ratify both the Treaty of Guarantee and the Versailles Treaty
Clemenceau & the French felt betrayed by the British & US
The French ended up with neither a new border at the Rhine River, nor assurance of military aid if Germany were to attack again
Therefore, France began making treaties with Poland and the “Little Entente”

14. Little Entente An alliance of Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia & Romania
Originally formed to protect the three countries from Hungary & Italy, who wanted land back
IRREDENTISM… desire to recover former territory
The three countries cooperated militarily and economically
France supported the Little Entente in her search for allies to balance against Germany

15. Weakness of the Little Entente
Little Entente did not expand… Poland never joined
Conflict over Teschen… an area rich in mineral resources, claimed by both Poland & Czech
Was part of Silesia and Teschen was divided between Poland & Czechoslovakia
Teschen was important to Czechoslovakia (a) only railroad from Czech territory to Slovakia (b) coal mines (c) location of Trinec Iron & Steel Works
Poland claimed the area on ethnic grounds… in 1910, 31.7% of the pop. was listed as Polish-speaking

16. Jan. 1919, Czech invaded, but was stopped by the Allies
The borders were settled by the League in 1924 and by a Czech-Polish Treaty 1925
The Treschen was divided between the two countries
The border settlement in these agreements still exist today
But… Poland was unhappy and continued to feud with Czechoslovakia until the start of WW II

17. Cordon Sanitaire Term first used by Georges Clemenceau
Urged new states of Eastern Europe to form a defensive union to prevent the spread of Communism into western Europe
In particular, Czechoslovakia, Poland & Yugoslavia should be a barrier to the spread of Communism
Is this the start of the Cold War? According to French historian Andre Fontaine the real start of the Cold War is when the Bolsheviks took power in 1917 and the French response of the Cordon Sainitaire

18. Hungary… Bela Kun Founder of Hungarian Communist Party
Fought in Austrian army, taken prisoner by Russian 1916
Returned to Hungary after the war as a Bolshevik
Able to form a coalition government (Mar. 1919) in the new Hungary, dominated by the Communists
His policies were unpopular & he ruled through military force… his government fell Aug. 1919
French support allowed Admiral Horthy to take control

19. Treaty of Rapallo 1922
“Beware of throwing a hungry Russia and an angry Germany into each other’s arms.” Lloyd George 1922
Between USSR & Germany… officially an economic treaty
Brought together two countries excluded from the L of N
Germany extended diplomatic recognition to the USSR and the USSR toward Germany
Both countries cancelled prewar debts and renounced war claims
USSR gave Germany most-favored-nation trade status & trade agreements

20. Germany was able to evade disarmament clauses of the Versailles Treaty
Secret clauses allowed the German Army to produce & perfect weapons forbidden by the Versailles Treaty
France did not believe Russian assurances that there were no secret clauses
Caused France to take a harder line on Germany

21. Washington Naval Conference 1921-22
Issues: (a) naval disarmament (b) Far East issues
Main participatory countries: USA, Great Britain, France, Japan, Italy, Belgium, Netherlands, Portugal, China
The Soviet Union was not invited
Purpose: (a) avoid expensive arms/naval race (b) US Congress did not want to spend $$$ on an expensive navy (c) Britain wanted to spend money on other issues, rather than on another naval race (d) Japan did not have enough $$ for their economy and expanding their navy

22. Four Power Agreement… USA, Britain, France, Japan… guaranteed territorial possessions in the Pacific. If another country threatened one of their possessions, the others would help defend
Agreed to submit disagreements among each other to a conference
Five Power Agreement… USA, Britain, France, Japan & Italy… set ratio for size of fleets…
5:5:3:1.75:1.75
Also limited tonnage of capital ships and a moratorium on new naval construction
Restriction on carrier tonnage; USA, Britain & Japan allowed to convert only two cruisers to carriers

23. Nine Power Agreement… all nine participants… agreed to support the Open Door policy in China and to uphold China’s territorial integrity.
At this time, Sun Yat-sen was trying to establish a Republic in China against the control of various local warlords
Other issues…
Japan agreed to give Shantung Pen back to China
Limited the use of submarines
Ban on use of poison gas in war
Problem… how to enforce the agreements?
Cruiser tonnage not regulated, so a race to build cruisers developed

24. Geneva Naval Conference 1927
Called by the US
Britain, Japan & US attended… France & Italy declined the invitation to attend
Purpose was to add classes of ships not included in the Washington Naval Conference, such as cruisers, submarines & destroyers
The issue of total tonnage v. total number of ships was debated… Britain wanted to build more light cruisers than the US wanted to build

25. Britain wanted to use tonnage, US wanted to use total number of ships
The British also wanted to use a “doctrine of requirements”… the size of a country’s navy should be what was necessary to defend its territories, rather than navy size being proportional (US idea)
A new ratio was established… 10:10:7
The US began building 15 new cruisers, since they were under the allowed tonnage, and an air craft carrier, joining the arms race
That caused the British and Japanese to look at their naval building programs

26. Ruhr Crisis 1923
1921 the Reparations Committee determined that Germany should pay 132 billion gold marks; 2 billion each year
Britain was willing to accept moratoriums on payments, but France wanted payment in goods, if Germany could not pay in marks
December 1922 Germany did not provide a shipment of telephone poles, France & Belgium invaded the Ruhr to force Germany to pay
The Ruhr provided 85% of Germany’s coal

27. French & Belgian Occupation
Germany adopted a policy of passive resistance
A general strike was declared
German government decided to pay workers’ (2 million) salaries and compensate factory owners
France imposed a blockade on the Ruhr
Germany financed the crisis by printing money, which led to hyper-inflation
Middle class families were most affects as they lost their life savings
Britain opposed French actions… they wanted Germany to be able to rebuild their economy and they worried about French dominance in Europe

28. German Hyper-inflation
1914… $1 = 4 marks
Germany left the gold standard in 1914
Germany printed money to finance the war… the value of the mark fell 50% against the dollar
Prices doubled between
Prices doubled again between
Between 1918 and 1923, taxes covered only 35% of government expenditures
In 1922 milk went from 7 to 16 marks/liter
Jan. 1919… $1 = 8.9 marks

29. Growth of hyper-inflation
1921 Allied Commission set reparations at 132 billion marks… $31.4 billion
Jan. 1922… $1 = marks
Reparations was made the scapegoat for economic problems
June 1922… $1 = 350 marks
October 1922… $1 = 4,500 marks

30. 1923 Jan. 1923, French & Belgian engineers & troops invaded the Ruhr
Jan. 1923… $1 = 18,000 marks
Nov. 1923… $1 = 4.2 trillion marks
No! You won’t subdue me! Sept. 1923
German bakery

31. Results of the Ruhr Crisis
German Chancellor, Gustav Stresemann called off the passive resistance Sept. 1923
There were riots, the action was seen as a defeat for Germany & martial law was declared
The French economy also suffered, due to the cost of occupying the Ruhr
The British distrusted the French and felt they were a threat to European stability
France learned they could not enforce decisions themselves and had to rely on collective security
Dawes Plan

32. Gustav Stresemann ( )
Chancellor 1923; Foreign Minister
Was a politician and economist
Before WW I, believed in a strong German navy to extend and protect overseas trade
During WW I, supported unrestricted submarine warfare
Believed in power, authority & discipline
Was against the Treaty of Versailles
By 1923 began to see the world as a jigsaw puzzle with interconnecting political and business relationships

33. As Chancellor, restored order in Bavaria after Hitler’s failed putsch
Ended the Ruhr Crisis
Began stabilizing Germany’s currency
Accepted the Dawes Plan
Negotiated the Locarno Agreements 1925
Co-recipient of Nobel Peace Prize with Briand
Negotiated Treaty of Berlin 1926 with Russia
Saw Germany accepted into the LofN 1926
Accepted the Young Plan (1929)

34. Aristide Briand ( )
Lawyer & journalist before first entering politics in 1902
Main goal was to work to eliminate war through diplomacy and to gain trust through personal diplomacy and persuasiveness
His education and work as a lawyer caused him to emphasize and value application of law

35. As prime minister & foreign minister , worked on reparations issue and attended Washington Naval Conference
Became Foreign Minister again
Negotiated the Locarno Agreements 1925 & co-recipient of Nobel Peace Prize 1926
Negotiated the Kellogg-Briand Pact 1928
In 1930, presented an idea of an European Union to the League of Nations, but the proposal was not considered

36. Dawes Plan 1924 USA, Britain, France & Germany
The final amount of reparations was not changed, but the annual payments were lowered
There was a two-year moratorium was granted, along with 800 million mark loan
This ended the international isolation of Germany
Some in Germany saw the Dawes Plan as the government accepting Germany paying reparations

38. Locarno Agreements 1925
Series of treaties signed by Germany, France, Belgium, Britain & Italy
The agreements were originated by Germany
Rhineland Pact… France, Germany & Belgium affirmed 1919 borders set in the Versailles Treaty
Any dispute to be settled by Council of LoN
Britain & Italy agreed to come to defense of any nation attacked in violation of the Pact
Allied troops were to leave the Rhineland in stages
Germany would apply for membership in the LoN

39. Locarno Arbitration Agreements
Other treaties were signed between…
Germany and France
Germany and Belgium
Germany and Poland
Germany and Czechoslovakia
These agreements committed the countries to refer disputes to the Permanent Court of International Justice or to an arbitration panel
Borders between Germany and the eastern Eur countries were not guaranteed and Stresemann wanted to eventually renegotiate those borders

40. Two other Locarno Agreements were between France & Poland and between France & Czech
Each pair of countries agreed to come to the other’s defense in the case of an attack by a third country
Stresemann A.Chamberlain Briand

41. Kellogg-Briand Pact 1928
“International Treaty for the Renunciation of War as an instrument of National Policy” (official title)
Frank Kellogg… US Secretary of State
The title is the contents of the pact and is based on the idea of collective security
65 nations had signed it by 1929
It was an ideal and statement of intentions
No enforcement provision

42. Young Plan 1929 Replaced the Dawes Plan
Further reduced the amount of German reparations
Reparations Commission would no longer be able to impose sanctions, such as those in 1923
Also to lead to loans for Germany

43. Nazis in 1920s
Founded Oct by Anton Drexler and others to oppose both capitalism and communism
The German Army sent Adolph Hitler to spy on the organization
Drexler was impressed with Hitler’s oratory skills and invited him to join the party
Hitler suggested changing the name to National Socialist German Workers’ Party (Nazi) in 1920
Feb published “Twenty-five Points” program
1921 Hitler took over leadership from Drexler

44. 1922 Nazi Party Members
1923 failed Beer Hall Putsch landed Hitler in jail where he wrote “Mein Kampf”
By the time Hitler was released from jail in 1924, conditions had changed in Germany

45. Hitler decided the lesson of the putsch was that the Nazis had to gain power through elections and by gaining control of the German government
May 1924 election, gained 32 seats (out of 500) in the Reichstag
May 1928 election, gained 12 seats
Between , the party grew from 27,000 to 108,000 members
Sept. 1930, the Nazis became the 2nd largest party with 107 representatives

46. Sources http://www.h-france.net/vol1reviews/blatt.html

47.
(text of treaty between France/Poland)
(picture of 1922 Nazi Party)