1. Physical and Cognitive Development in Adolescence Chapter 11:

2. IN THIS CHAPTER Physical ChangesAdolescent SexualityAdolescent HealthChanges in Thinking and MemorySchooling

3. LEARNING OBJECTIVES 11.1 How do the brains and other body systems of adolescents differ from those of younger children? 11.2 What are the major milestones of puberty? 11.3 What are the consequences of early, “on time,” and late puberty for boys and girls? 11.4 What are the patterns of adolescent sexual behavior in the United States? 11.5 Which teenaged girls are most likely to get pregnant? 11.6 What are some causes that have been proposed to explain homosexuality? 11.7 How does sensation seeking affect risky behavior in adolescents? 11.8 What patterns of drug, alcohol, and tobacco use have been found among adolescents in the United States?

4. LEARNING OBJECTIVES (con’t) 11.9 What are the characteristics and causes of eating disorders? 11.10 Which adolescents are at greatest risk of depression and suicide? 11.11 What are the characteristics of thought in Piaget’s formal operational stage? 11.12 What are some major research findings regarding the formal operational stage? 11.13 What kinds of advances in information-processing capabilities occur during adolescence? 11.14 How do changes in students’ goals contribute to the transition to secondary school? 11.15 What gender and ethnic differences in science and math achievement have researchers found? 11.16 What variables predict the likelihood of dropping out of high school?

5. ADOLESCENCE

6. PHYSICAL CHANGES Other Body Systems: Growth Spurts First Growth Spurt  Cephalocaudal/ proximodistal patterns  Joint development  Gender differences Second Growth Spurt  Muscle fibers  Heart and lung  Body fat levels  Gender differences

7. PHYSICAL CHANGES The Brain There are two major growth spurts in the teenage years. 13–15 years Largely related to parts of the brain that control spatial perceptions and motor functions Cerebral cortex becomes thicker; neuronal pathways become more efficient; more energy produced 15+ years Changes in prefrontal cortex responsible for executive processing

8. PHYSICAL CHANGES The Brain The prefrontal cortex matures rapidly during adolescence and contributes to advances in executive processing. The second adolescent brain growth spurt begins around age 17 and continues into early adulthood; the frontal lobes and the cerebral cortex are the focus of development. Frontal lobe Prefrontal cortex

9. PHYSICAL CHANGES The Skeletal System Growth patterns Gender differences Joint development

10. PHYSICAL CHANGES The Muscular System What do you know about …? Growth patterns Gender differences

11. PHYSICAL CHANGES The Heart and Lungs What do you know about …? Growth patterns Gender differences

12. PHYSICAL CHANGES Milestones of Puberty Puberty: changes needed for reproductive maturity Endocrine glands Pituitary gland

13. Milestones of Puberty

14. PHYSICAL CHANGES Endocrine and Reproductive Systems: Overview Thyroid gland Adrenal androgen Gender differences

15. MAJOR HORMONES THAT CONTRIBUTE TO PHYSICAL GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

16. PHYSICAL CHANGES Sexual Development in Girls: Secular Trend Menarche: first menstruation Occurs two years after the beginning of other visible signs of puberty Pregnancy can occur after menarche.

17. PHYSICAL CHANGES Endocrine and Reproductive Systems: Sex Characteristics Primary Sex Characteristics Growth of testes and penis Growth of ovaries, uterus, and vagina Secondary Sex Characteristics Breast development Changing voice pitch Beard growth Body hair

18. PHYSICAL CHANGES Sexual Development in Girls: Secular Trend Secular trend: timing of menarche Lowering of the age of menarche by four months per decade Due mainly to changes in diet and lifestyle

19. BOYS PHYSICAL CHANGES Sexual Development in Boys Sperm production begins between ages 12 and 14. First ejaculation about age 13 or 14 Genital development and pubic hair development precede the end of the growth spurt. Development of beard and voice changes occur near the end of the sequence.

20. PHYSICAL CHANGES Sexual Development in Girls Heredity and behavioral factors influence hormonal secretions. If major body changes occur before age 11 or 12, girls have consistently more negative views of their own bodies. Social context influences change. GIRLS

21. PHYSICAL CHANGES Sexual Behavior: Overview Boys are more sexually active than girls. Reports of sexual intercourse vary across ethnic groups. The rate of teen sexual behavior has declined substantially over the last three decades.

22. PHYSICAL CHANGES Sexual Behavior: Early Sexuality Social Factors

23. Sexual Activity among High School Students

24. PHYSICAL CHANGES Prevalence of Sexual Behavior Age of Sexual Activity Initiation 1988 (15–19 years)2008 (15–19 years) 60% Males43% Males 51% Females42% Females Sexually Active Students FemalesMales 19 percent 9 th grade 24 percent 9 th grade 51 percent 12 th grade44 percent 12 th grade What do these data tell us?

25. PHYSICAL CHANGES Sexual Behavior Characteristics of Girls Who Are Sexually Active Early menarche Low interest in school and school activities Early dating History of sexual abuse

26. PHYSICAL CHANGES Sexual Behavior: Moral Beliefs Activities and moral beliefs influence lower sexual activity among teens who: Believe premarital sex is wrong Attend religious services Participate in school activities Do not use alcohol

27. PHYSICAL CHANGES Sexual Behavior and Education Among sexually active students, 90 percent report contraceptive use. Despite school units, teens show ignorance of STDs. Abstinence and contraceptive education are still controversial in many schools.

28. ADOLESCENT SEXUALITY Adolescent Pregnancy Higher in the U.S. than in many other industrialized countries Far more frequent among older adolescents The relative frequency of teens who are unmarried has increased, but teen birth rates have dropped overall.

29. ADOLESCENT SEXUALITY Sexual Minority Youth Kinsey Scale Exclusive heterosexuality Exclusive homosexuality Bisexuality Transgendered Teens Transsexualism Sex reassignment

30. CRISIS INTERVENTION FOR THE PREGNANT TEEN Crisis Intervention Model Initial phase: the teen feels anxiety and confusion; a trusted adult provides gentle confrontation Escalation phase: the teen feels overwhelmed in daily functions; helping without nagging Redefinition: goal identification; emotional support and guidance Dysfunctional phase: failure to redefine/denial

31. Reflection 1.In which crisis phase was Brianna when she visited the school clinic? 2.Think about how the crisis phases might be manifested in a different kind of crisis. For instance, what phase-related behaviors might be shown by a teenager who has been arrested for underage drinking?

32. PHYSICAL CHANGES Adolescent Pregnancy Ethnic Differences in Teens Who Marry African Americans Hispanic Americans Caucasian Americans

33. PHYSICAL CHANGES Adolescent Pregnancy Factors in Teen Pregnancy Onset age of sexual activity Poverty and family influence Less school success Less contraception use

34. PHYSICAL CHANGES Adolescent Pregnancy What happens when teens get pregnant? MythReality

35. PHYSICAL CHANGES Adolescent Pregnancy: Children of Teen Mothers Negative Outcomes Achieve developmental milestones more slowly when infants Grow up in poverty Positive Possibilities  Negative effects can be mitigated by support from girl’s own parents  Staying in school and social programs positively help both child and mother

36. PHYSICAL CHANGES Sexual Minority Youth Gay, Lesbian, and Bisexual Adolescents The realization begins in middle school. Few accept their homosexuality during adolescence. Cause Prenatal hormone patterns may be a causal factor in homosexuality. Twin studies suggest a biological basis.

37. PHYSICAL CHANGES Transgendered Teens Transgender teen: the psychological gender differs from the biological sex Higher rates of depression and suicide Cause is debated

38. ADOLESCENT HEALTH Sensation Seeking Sensation seeking: the desire to experience increased levels of arousal (through risky behavior) Gain peer acceptance and autonomy from parents Response to popular media’s messages Brain growth

39. ADOLESCENT HEALTH Drugs, Alcohol, and Tobacco Use Teen use of drugs down but still a significant problem. Alcohol use is prevalent. Sensation seeking is related to increased use of alcohol and drugs.

40. ILLICIT DRUG USE TRENDS AMONG TEENAGERS

41. TRUE OR FALSE The decline in teen use of illicit drugs is due to an increased and better understanding of consequences.

42. ADOLESCENT HEALTH Drugs, Alcohol, and Tobacco Tobacco Use Fewer teens are regular smokers today than were a generation ago. Teens who are more likely to smoke are influenced by smoking peers.

43. ADOLESCENT HEALTH Body Image and Eating Disorders Eating disorder: mental disorder in which eating behavior goes beyond everyday experiences with trying to lose weight Anorexia nervosa Bulimia nervosa

44. STOP AND THINK! What contributes to or causes eating disorders?

45. ADOLESCENT HEALTH Depression and Suicide Incidence Depression Suicide Causes or Contributing Factors Depression Suicide Consequences Depression Suicide

46. CHANGES IN THINKING AND MEMORY Piaget’s Formal Operational Thought Formal operational stage: reasoning logically about abstract concepts Key elements

47. FORMAL OPERATIONAL THINKING AND EVERYDAY Lewis and colleagues asked students in 8 th through 12 th grades to respond to dilemmas that involved a person facing a difficult decision. Mentioning future possibilities: 42 percent of 12 th graders and 11 percent of 8 th graders Younger children failed to use formal operational thinking effectively. Is this because of immature brain development or lack of practice? What do you think?

48. Critical Analysis 1. How do the characteristics of adolescent thinking come into play when teenagers have to come up with ways of coping with teachers whom they don’t like or of raising a failing grade? 2. To what extent does teens’ limited ability to use formal operational thinking in everyday contexts explain findings about the ineffectiveness of sex education programs that you read about earlier in the chapter?

49. CHANGES IN THINKING AND MEMORY Direct Tests of Piaget’s Views Tasks Complex reasoning tasks Metaphors Decision making Education levels influence use of formal operational thought.

50. WITHIN-STAGE DEVELOPMENT IN FORMAL OPERATIONS Figure 11.4 Within-Stage Development in Formal Operations

51. CHANGES IN THINKING AND MEMORY Advances in Information Processing Task Improvement with Age Metacognition Metamemory Strategy use increase Text learning

52. STOP AND THINK! Research findings show that achievement declines after students enter high school. Why do you think such declines may occur?

53. SCHOOLING Transition to Secondary School Is the goal the goal? Middle school  Task goals: based on personal standards and the desire to become more competent  Ability goals: define success in competitive terms

54. SCHOOLING Middle School: Ability Grouping Emphasis on Ability Grouping Students may change their beliefs about individual abilities.  High achievers  Low achievers

55. SCHOOLING Middle School: School Climate Perception of School Climate Successful intervention strategies  Mentor  Homeroom teacher  Student teams  Parental involvement

56. SCHOOLING High School Success The early days of high school set a pattern. Activity participation helps develop psychological attributes.

57. SCHOOLING Gender, Ethnicity, and Science and Math Achievement  Girls are at risk for achievement losses in the transition to high school.  The gender gap widest among the most intellectually talented students.  Girls suffer in sciences not offering hands-on activities.  Girls are often discouraged from taking courses in science.

58. SCHOOLING Gender, Ethnicity, and Science and Math Achievement The gender gap widens in math. Ethnic variations exist.

59. SCHOOLING Dropping Out of High School Links Ethnicity, peer group, low value on completion, history of academic failure Profiles Quiet, disengaged, low-achieving, and poorly adjusted students are at high risk. Consequences Unemployment, lower wages, depression, and increased criminal activity

60. REACHING HIGH SCHOOL DROPOUTS YouthBuild USA: a program that provides dropouts with marketable skills tailored to communities Examples of YouthBuild/Boston goals Learning marketable skills in construction- related areas Working toward GED or high school diploma Working on community-related construction projects Impressive success with youth who have been incarcerated

61. You Decide Decide which of these two statements you most agree with and think about how you would defend your position: 1.Since a large proportion of students drop out of them, programs such as YouthBuild USA appear to be a waste of taxpayers’ money. 2.The public should support programs such as YouthBuild USA because they may save money in the long run by preventing high school dropouts from ending up on the welfare rolls.