1. Chapter 6 Spirit of Reform

2. Jacksonian America Andrew Jackson stood up for federal authority. He tried to move Native Americans to the West and undermine the Bank of the United States. A new party, the Whigs emerged to oppose him. Andrew Jackson stood up for federal authority. He tried to move Native Americans to the West and undermine the Bank of the United States. A new party, the Whigs emerged to oppose him.

3. A New Era in Politics Margaret Bayard Smith was one of the ones who attended the presidential inauguration of Andrew Jackson in 1829. She was amazed at the number of various groups that came and were very orderly and quiet. At the White House, the public was invited to his reception. Complete chaos occurred when the crowds tried to get close to the president. They broke glass and china in a struggle to get refreshments.

4.  This new class of citizens represented a new era in American politics. The nation’s political system became more democratic and more ordinary people became a greater political force.

5. States Expand Voting Rights In the early 1800s, many states eliminated property ownership as a voting qualification. In the early 1800s, many states eliminated property ownership as a voting qualification. Many Americans (white men) gained the right to vote. Many Americans (white men) gained the right to vote. Cities and towns grew, increasing the percentage of working people who did not own property (they paid taxes and wanted a greater voice in electing those who represented them). Cities and towns grew, increasing the percentage of working people who did not own property (they paid taxes and wanted a greater voice in electing those who represented them). The expansion of suffrage (the right to vote) was evident in the turnout for the presidential election of 1828. In 1824, there were 355,000 votes for president. The expansion of suffrage (the right to vote) was evident in the turnout for the presidential election of 1828. In 1824, there were 355,000 votes for president. In 1828, more than 1.1 million citizens cast a ballot in the election. In 1828, more than 1.1 million citizens cast a ballot in the election. In 1840, over 2 million citizens voted. In 1840, over 2 million citizens voted. Jackson benefited from the new voters; many lived on the frontier and saw Jackson as a man similar to their lifestyle. Jackson benefited from the new voters; many lived on the frontier and saw Jackson as a man similar to their lifestyle.

6. The Spoils System Jackson had confidence in the capability and intelligence of average American. He believed that the majority should rule and ordinary citizens should play a role in government. Jackson had confidence in the capability and intelligence of average American. He believed that the majority should rule and ordinary citizens should play a role in government. These beliefs led Jackson to support the spoils system (practice of giving people government jobs on the basis of party loyalty). Jackson fired a large number of federal employees so as to appoint his own followers. These beliefs led Jackson to support the spoils system (practice of giving people government jobs on the basis of party loyalty). Jackson fired a large number of federal employees so as to appoint his own followers. Andrew Jackson considered the spoils system because it put an end to permanent, non-elected office-holding class. Andrew Jackson considered the spoils system because it put an end to permanent, non-elected office-holding class.

7. From Caucus to Convention Jackson’s supporters also changed the way presidential candidates were chosen. At the time, political parties used the caucus system to select presidential candidates. This system allowed the members of the party who served in Congress would choose the nominee for president. Jackson’s supporters also changed the way presidential candidates were chosen. At the time, political parties used the caucus system to select presidential candidates. This system allowed the members of the party who served in Congress would choose the nominee for president. The Jacksonians replaced the caucus with a national nominating convention. At nominating conventions, delegates from the states gathered to decide on the party’s presidential nominee. The convention allowed the people, not elite, to decide on party nominees. In 1832, the Democrats held a convention and re-nominated Andrew Jackson for president. The Jacksonians replaced the caucus with a national nominating convention. At nominating conventions, delegates from the states gathered to decide on the party’s presidential nominee. The convention allowed the people, not elite, to decide on party nominees. In 1832, the Democrats held a convention and re-nominated Andrew Jackson for president.

8. The Nullification Crisis Jackson had to focus on national crisis early in office; South Carolina and the growing rift between the nation’s Northern and Southern regions. Jackson had to focus on national crisis early in office; South Carolina and the growing rift between the nation’s Northern and Southern regions.

9. The Debate Over Nullification South Carolina’s economy began to decline in the early 1800’s. Many blamed the nation’s tariffs. Because it had few industries, South Carolina purchased many of its manufactured goods from England, but tariffs made the goods expensive. When Congress levied another new tariff in 1828, which critics called the Tariff of Abominations, many South Carolinians threatened to secede, or withdraw, from the Union. South Carolina’s economy began to decline in the early 1800’s. Many blamed the nation’s tariffs. Because it had few industries, South Carolina purchased many of its manufactured goods from England, but tariffs made the goods expensive. When Congress levied another new tariff in 1828, which critics called the Tariff of Abominations, many South Carolinians threatened to secede, or withdraw, from the Union. John C. Calhoun, the vice president and resident of South Carolina, put forth the idea of nullification to defuse the problem. He argued that the states had the right to declare a federal law null, or not valid. John C. Calhoun, the vice president and resident of South Carolina, put forth the idea of nullification to defuse the problem. He argued that the states had the right to declare a federal law null, or not valid.

10. Robert Hayne (South Carolina) and Daniel Webster (Massachusetts) debated on the issue of the nullification crisis for a week on the floor of the Senate. Hayne defended states rights and said that the Union was no more than a voluntary association of states advocating the motto, “Liberty first and Union afterward.” Webster countered that liberty depended on the strength of the Union, “Liberty and Union, now and forever, one and inseparable.” Robert Hayne (South Carolina) and Daniel Webster (Massachusetts) debated on the issue of the nullification crisis for a week on the floor of the Senate. Hayne defended states rights and said that the Union was no more than a voluntary association of states advocating the motto, “Liberty first and Union afterward.” Webster countered that liberty depended on the strength of the Union, “Liberty and Union, now and forever, one and inseparable.”

11. Jackson Defends the Union After the Webster-Hayne debate, President Jackson let everyone know his position on the issue. During a political diner, Jackson stood to make a toast. Looking at John Calhoun, he said, “Our federal Union – it must be preserved.” Calhoun’s hand shook, but he rose to counter with, “The Union – next to our liberty, most dear.” After the Webster-Hayne debate, President Jackson let everyone know his position on the issue. During a political diner, Jackson stood to make a toast. Looking at John Calhoun, he said, “Our federal Union – it must be preserved.” Calhoun’s hand shook, but he rose to counter with, “The Union – next to our liberty, most dear.” In 1832, Congress passed another tariff law. Jackson had the new law cut tariffs significantly, but South Carolinians were not satisfied. In November, at a special convention, South Carolina adopted an ordinance of nullification declaring the tariffs of 1828 and 1832 to be unconstitutional. In 1832, Congress passed another tariff law. Jackson had the new law cut tariffs significantly, but South Carolinians were not satisfied. In November, at a special convention, South Carolina adopted an ordinance of nullification declaring the tariffs of 1828 and 1832 to be unconstitutional.

12. Jackson considered the nullification ordinance an act of treason and sent a warship to Charleston. In 1833, Congress passed the Force Bill, authorizing the president to use the military to enforce acts of Congress. Senator Henry Clay pushed through Congress a bill that would lower the nation’s tariffs gradually until 1842. In response, South Carolina repealed its nullification of the tariff law. Both sides claimed victory, and the issue laid to rest, at least temporarily. Jackson considered the nullification ordinance an act of treason and sent a warship to Charleston. In 1833, Congress passed the Force Bill, authorizing the president to use the military to enforce acts of Congress. Senator Henry Clay pushed through Congress a bill that would lower the nation’s tariffs gradually until 1842. In response, South Carolina repealed its nullification of the tariff law. Both sides claimed victory, and the issue laid to rest, at least temporarily.

13. Policies Toward Native Americans Andrew Jackson’s commitment to extend democracy did not benefit everyone. His views toward Native Americans reflected the views of many westerners at the time. Jackson had fought the Creek and Seminole people in Georgia and Florida, and in his inaugural address he declared his intention to move all Native Americans to the Great Plains. Andrew Jackson’s commitment to extend democracy did not benefit everyone. His views toward Native Americans reflected the views of many westerners at the time. Jackson had fought the Creek and Seminole people in Georgia and Florida, and in his inaugural address he declared his intention to move all Native Americans to the Great Plains. Many Americans believed that the Great Plains was a wasteland that would never be settled. Moving Native Americans there would resolve their conflicts with them for good. In 1830, Jackson pushed through Congress the Indian Removal Act, which provided money for relocating Native Americans. Many Americans believed that the Great Plains was a wasteland that would never be settled. Moving Native Americans there would resolve their conflicts with them for good. In 1830, Jackson pushed through Congress the Indian Removal Act, which provided money for relocating Native Americans.

14. Most Native Americans moved but the Cherokee of Georgia did not. The Cherokee had developed a written language, drawn up a written constitution modeled on the United States Constitution, and many sent their children to schools established by white missionaries. Most Native Americans moved but the Cherokee of Georgia did not. The Cherokee had developed a written language, drawn up a written constitution modeled on the United States Constitution, and many sent their children to schools established by white missionaries. The Cherokee hired lawyers to sue the state of Georgia in order to challenge the state’s attempt to extend its authority over Cherokee lands. Their case, Worcester v. Georgia, eventually reached the Supreme Court. Chief Justice John Marshall ordered state officials to honor Cherokee property rights in 1832. Jackson refused to support the decision. The Cherokee hired lawyers to sue the state of Georgia in order to challenge the state’s attempt to extend its authority over Cherokee lands. Their case, Worcester v. Georgia, eventually reached the Supreme Court. Chief Justice John Marshall ordered state officials to honor Cherokee property rights in 1832. Jackson refused to support the decision.

15. Most Cherokee resisted the government’s offers of western land. Jackson’s successor, Martin Van Buren, sent in the army to end the conflict in 1838. The army forced Native Americans to move from their homes and marched them to what is now Oklahoma. About 2,000 Cherokee died in camps while waiting for the relocation to begin. Roughly 2,000 more died of starvation, disease, and exposure on the journey, which became known as the Trail of Tears. Most Cherokee resisted the government’s offers of western land. Jackson’s successor, Martin Van Buren, sent in the army to end the conflict in 1838. The army forced Native Americans to move from their homes and marched them to what is now Oklahoma. About 2,000 Cherokee died in camps while waiting for the relocation to begin. Roughly 2,000 more died of starvation, disease, and exposure on the journey, which became known as the Trail of Tears.

16. By 1838, most Native Americans living east of the Mississippi had been moved to reservations. Most Americans supported the removal policies. Non- supporters consisted of National Republicans, Quakers, and Methodists. By 1838, most Native Americans living east of the Mississippi had been moved to reservations. Most Americans supported the removal policies. Non- supporters consisted of National Republicans, Quakers, and Methodists.

17. Jackson Battles the National Bank One of Jackson’s biggest controversies of his presidency was his campaign against the Second Bank of the United States. Jackson, like most Westerners, regarded the Bank as a monopoly that benefited the wealthy elite. One of Jackson’s biggest controversies of his presidency was his campaign against the Second Bank of the United States. Jackson, like most Westerners, regarded the Bank as a monopoly that benefited the wealthy elite. Despite its reputation, the Bank helped to keep the money supply of the United States stable. Private state banks issued bank notes. The bank notes (paper money) were exchanged for “hard” money or gold and silver coins. The problem was that more bank notes were given out than they could exchange with hard money. This allowed them to make more loans at lower interest rates, but it created the danger of inflation. Despite its reputation, the Bank helped to keep the money supply of the United States stable. Private state banks issued bank notes. The bank notes (paper money) were exchanged for “hard” money or gold and silver coins. The problem was that more bank notes were given out than they could exchange with hard money. This allowed them to make more loans at lower interest rates, but it created the danger of inflation.

18. Many western settlers were unhappy with the Bank’s policies because they needed easy credit to run their farms. President Jackson believed the Bank to be unconstitutional, despite the Supreme Court’s ruling in McCulloch v. Maryland (govt. right to create a National Bank) Many western settlers were unhappy with the Bank’s policies because they needed easy credit to run their farms. President Jackson believed the Bank to be unconstitutional, despite the Supreme Court’s ruling in McCulloch v. Maryland (govt. right to create a National Bank) To make the Bank an issue in the 1832 election, Jackson’s opponents in Congress introduced a bill to extend the Bank’s charter for another 20 years. Jackson vetoed the bill gaining support from many Americans and won the election easy. To make the Bank an issue in the 1832 election, Jackson’s opponents in Congress introduced a bill to extend the Bank’s charter for another 20 years. Jackson vetoed the bill gaining support from many Americans and won the election easy.

19. His reelection confirmed that the people wanted to see the Bank destroyed. Jackson removed the government’s deposit to the National Bank and placed them in state banks (known as “pet banks”). This weakened the Bank, leading to a slow death. Jackson gained political victory but contributed to financial woes that plagued the country in the years ahead. His reelection confirmed that the people wanted to see the Bank destroyed. Jackson removed the government’s deposit to the National Bank and placed them in state banks (known as “pet banks”). This weakened the Bank, leading to a slow death. Jackson gained political victory but contributed to financial woes that plagued the country in the years ahead. Andrew Jackson’s forceful style earned him plenty of detractors, and by the mid-1830s a new party had emerged to oppose him. The group named itself the Whigs after the party in England that had worked to limit the king’s power. The Whigs advocated a stronger federal government and support for industrial and commercial development. Jackson’s Democrats continued to support the idea of a limited federal government. Andrew Jackson’s forceful style earned him plenty of detractors, and by the mid-1830s a new party had emerged to oppose him. The group named itself the Whigs after the party in England that had worked to limit the king’s power. The Whigs advocated a stronger federal government and support for industrial and commercial development. Jackson’s Democrats continued to support the idea of a limited federal government.

20. Martin Van Buren The Whigs opposed Jackson, but were not able to settle on a leader. In the 1836 presidential election, 3 candidates ran for president as Whigs. The Democrat, Martin Van Buren won. Martin Van Buren came to office as an economic crisis hit the country. During the Panic of 1837, many banks and businesses failed due to Jackson’s “pet banks” Thousands of farmers lost their land, and unemployment soared among eastern factory workers. Van Buren believed his party’s philosophy of a limited federal government did little to ease the crisis. Martin Van Buren

21. “Tippecanoe and Tyler Too” During the election of 1840, the Whigs nominated the war hero of the Battle of Tippecanoe and the War of 1812, General William Henry Harrison. During the election of 1840, the Whigs nominated the war hero of the Battle of Tippecanoe and the War of 1812, General William Henry Harrison. John Tyler, left the democrat party in protest over the nullification issue, ran as the vice presidential candidate. John Tyler, left the democrat party in protest over the nullification issue, ran as the vice presidential candidate. Campaign slogan “Tippecanoe and Tyler Too”, the Whigs blamed Van Buren for the economic depression and presented Harrison, as a man born to wealth and privilege, as a simple frontiersman. Campaign slogan “Tippecanoe and Tyler Too”, the Whigs blamed Van Buren for the economic depression and presented Harrison, as a man born to wealth and privilege, as a simple frontiersman.

22. Harrison won 234 to 60 electoral votes. On the bitter cold day of Harrison’s inauguration speech, he spoke for two hours without a hat or coat. He came down with pneumonia and died 32 days later, thereby serving the shortest term of any American president. Vice President John Tyler then became president. Most children of any president (15) Wife died while in office. John Tyler

23. Tyler’s policies frightened many Whigs leaders. He was placed on the ballot to gain southern voters. The Whigs in Congress tried to force their agenda anyway, including a Third Bank of the United States and a higher tariff, but Tyler sided with the Democrats on these key issues. Tyler’s policies frightened many Whigs leaders. He was placed on the ballot to gain southern voters. The Whigs in Congress tried to force their agenda anyway, including a Third Bank of the United States and a higher tariff, but Tyler sided with the Democrats on these key issues. Tyler’s administration focused much of its time on foreign relations with Great Britain. Disputes over the Maine-Canadian border, and other issues, resulted in the 1842 Wester- Ashburton Treaty, which established the border between the United States and Canada from Maine to Minnesota. Tyler’s administration focused much of its time on foreign relations with Great Britain. Disputes over the Maine-Canadian border, and other issues, resulted in the 1842 Wester- Ashburton Treaty, which established the border between the United States and Canada from Maine to Minnesota.

24. A Changing Culture 5 million immigrants moved into the United States between 1815 and 1860. Some of these immigrants found success and others found discrimination and prejudice. At the same time, a new religious movement began to change American society.

25. The Irish Arrive The largest wave of immigrants came from Ireland to escape the potato famine caused from a fungus on the potato crop in Ireland. Tens of thousands were dying of starvation. Many Irish came with no money and few skills. They worked in the industries of the Northeast. On board a coffin ship.

26. German Arrival Germans were the second largest group to move into the United States. In 1848, Germany saw its country divided into many states while revolutionaries tried to impose reforms that failed. Many Germans fled to the United States and bought land in Ohio and Pennsylvania where many became farmers. Germans were the second largest group to move into the United States. In 1848, Germany saw its country divided into many states while revolutionaries tried to impose reforms that failed. Many Germans fled to the United States and bought land in Ohio and Pennsylvania where many became farmers. German Revolution of 1848

27. Nativism The presence of people from different cultures, with different languages and different religions, produced feelings of nativism, or hostility toward foreigners. Many Americans were anti-Catholic. The presence of people from different cultures, with different languages and different religions, produced feelings of nativism, or hostility toward foreigners. Many Americans were anti-Catholic. The arrival of predominantly Catholic Irish and German immigrants led to the rise of nativist groups, such as the Supreme Order of the Star-Spangled Banner (OSSB), founded in 1849. These groups pledged never to vote for a Catholic and pushed for laws banning immigrants and Catholics from holding public office. The arrival of predominantly Catholic Irish and German immigrants led to the rise of nativist groups, such as the Supreme Order of the Star-Spangled Banner (OSSB), founded in 1849. These groups pledged never to vote for a Catholic and pushed for laws banning immigrants and Catholics from holding public office. In 1854, delegates from these groups formed the American Party. Membership in the party was secret, and those questions about it were obliged to answer, “I know nothing.” The Know-Nothings, as the party was nicknamed, supported nativism and built a large following in the 1850s. In 1854, delegates from these groups formed the American Party. Membership in the party was secret, and those questions about it were obliged to answer, “I know nothing.” The Know-Nothings, as the party was nicknamed, supported nativism and built a large following in the 1850s.

28. A Religious Revival Americans were transforming society in their own ways. Protestantism experienced a dramatic revival, and new forms of worship emerged.

29. The Second Great Awakening By the end of the 1700s, many church leaders were concerned that many Americans’ commitment to the Christian faith was weakening. In the early 1800s, ministers began an effort to revive people’s commitment to religion. The Second Great Awakening began in Kentucky among frontier farmers. Leaders of Methodist, Baptists, and Presbyterians held camp meetings that attracted thousands of followers for several days of song, prayer, and revival. By the end of the 1700s, many church leaders were concerned that many Americans’ commitment to the Christian faith was weakening. In the early 1800s, ministers began an effort to revive people’s commitment to religion. The Second Great Awakening began in Kentucky among frontier farmers. Leaders of Methodist, Baptists, and Presbyterians held camp meetings that attracted thousands of followers for several days of song, prayer, and revival. The basic message of the Second Great Awakening is that individuals must re-admit God and Christ into their daily lives. Ministers preached that all people could attain grace through faith. The basic message of the Second Great Awakening is that individuals must re-admit God and Christ into their daily lives. Ministers preached that all people could attain grace through faith.

30. Charles Grandison Finney was a Presbyterian preacher who advocated the new message. He used emotions to focus people’s attention on his message much like politicians and salespeople. Finney believed that Christian ideas reformed people from within making society better. Charles Grandison Finney

31. New Religious Groups New religious groups emerged during the Second Great Awakening. Many people turned to new religious ideas to answer problems they faced. New religious groups emerged during the Second Great Awakening. Many people turned to new religious ideas to answer problems they faced. Unitarians and Universalists Unitarians and Universalists Unitarians rejected the idea that Jesus was the son of God, arguing instead that he was a great teacher. They believe that God is unity. Universalists believe in universal salvation of souls and reject the idea of hell. God intends to save everyone. Unitarians rejected the idea that Jesus was the son of God, arguing instead that he was a great teacher. They believe that God is unity. Universalists believe in universal salvation of souls and reject the idea of hell. God intends to save everyone.

32. The Mormons The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, whose followers are commonly known as Mormons, Joseph Smith, a New Englander living in western New York, began preaching Mormon ideas in 1830 after claiming to have been called to restore the Christian church to its original form. Smith published the Book of Mormon in that same year, saying it was a translation of words inscribed on golden plates he had received from an angel. The text told of the coming of God and the need to build a kingdom on Earth. Smith made hundreds of converts across New England and the Midwest. Joseph Smith received the golden plates and other artifacts from the angel Moroni.

33. After enduring harassment in Ohio, Missouri, and elsewhere, Mormons moved to Commerce, Illinois, in 1839. After enduring harassment in Ohio, Missouri, and elsewhere, Mormons moved to Commerce, Illinois, in 1839. They bought the town and renamed it Nauvoo. They bought the town and renamed it Nauvoo. Persecution continued and in that same year local residents murdered Smith. Persecution continued and in that same year local residents murdered Smith. Brigham Young became the leader of the Mormons and headed west to Utah territory, to escape religious persecution. Brigham Young became the leader of the Mormons and headed west to Utah territory, to escape religious persecution. Brigham Young

34. Utopian Communities Some Americans in the 1830s felt that society had corrupted human nature and separated themselves from the rest of society and form a utopia, or ideal society. On Brook Farm, a cooperative community became a popular religious society in upstate New York. The Shakers were a religious group that established utopian communities. They got their name from a ritual “shaking” dance its members performed. They did not believe in marrying or having children so the group could only expand by making converts.

35. Cultural Renaissance The Second Great Awakening also influenced philosophers and writers. The Second Great Awakening also influenced philosophers and writers. Romanticism became a movement in Europe in the late 1700s. It advocated feeling over reason, inner spirituality over external rules, the individual above society, and nature over environments created by humans. Romanticism became a movement in Europe in the late 1700s. It advocated feeling over reason, inner spirituality over external rules, the individual above society, and nature over environments created by humans. One expression of Romanticism was Transcendentalism. It urged people to transcend, or overcome the limits of their minds and let their souls reach out to the embrace the beauty of the universe. (Idea of self-reliance) One expression of Romanticism was Transcendentalism. It urged people to transcend, or overcome the limits of their minds and let their souls reach out to the embrace the beauty of the universe. (Idea of self-reliance)

36. Ralph Waldo Emerson An American lecturer, essayist, and poet, best remembered for leading the Transcendentalist movement of the mid- 19th century. An American lecturer, essayist, and poet, best remembered for leading the Transcendentalist movement of the mid- 19th century. In 1836, Emerson wrote an essay called “Nature” that told subjects to try to commune with nature. In 1836, Emerson wrote an essay called “Nature” that told subjects to try to commune with nature. “No one can cheat you out of ultimate success but yourself” Ralph Waldo Emerson

37. One of America’s most admired thinkers; he became a protégé of transcendentalist Ralph Waldo Emerson. Thoreau wrote Walden, where he recounts his feelings and experiences during a two-year period in which he lived in a shack by Walden Pond outside Concord. He also published “Civil Disobedience” an influential essay discussing the issues of personal conscience versus the demands of the government. He wrote it in jail after he refused to pay a tax. The ideas in “Civil Disobedience” would influence future civil rights leaders, such as Mahatma Gandhi and Martin Luther King Jr. Henry David Thoreau (1817-1862) Henry David Thoreau

38. Margaret Fuller (1810-1850) Fuller with help of Ralph Waldo Emerson, she founded the magazine The Dial, in which she published writings of the transcendentalist movement. Fuller with help of Ralph Waldo Emerson, she founded the magazine The Dial, in which she published writings of the transcendentalist movement. She organized groups to promote educational and intellectual development. She organized groups to promote educational and intellectual development. She wrote a book, Women in the Nineteenth Century, in which she argued that women deserve equal political rights. She wrote a book, Women in the Nineteenth Century, in which she argued that women deserve equal political rights. She also was the first woman foreign-war correspondent writing on a revolution in Italy. She also was the first woman foreign-war correspondent writing on a revolution in Italy. Margaret Fuller

39. Washington Irving was famous for writing “The Legend of Sleepy Hollow” (1819). He became the first internationally prominent American writer. James Fenimore Cooper romanticized Native Americans and frontier explorers in his Leather stocking Tales, the most famous being The Last of the Mohicans (1826). Cooper Irving

40. Nathaniel Hawthorne, a New England customs official and resident of Brook Farm, wrote more than 100 short stories and novels. His novel The Scarlet Letter (1850), with its Puritan setting, explored the persecution and psychological suffering that may result from sin. Nathaniel Hawthorne, a New England customs official and resident of Brook Farm, wrote more than 100 short stories and novels. His novel The Scarlet Letter (1850), with its Puritan setting, explored the persecution and psychological suffering that may result from sin. Herman Melville, another New Englander, wrote the great Moby Dick (1851). Herman Melville, another New Englander, wrote the great Moby Dick (1851). Hawthorne Melville

41. Edgar Allan Poe, a poet and short story writer, achieved fame as a writer of terror and mystery. Perhaps the era’s most important poet was Walt Whitman, who published the Leaves of Grass in 1855. Whitman loved nature, the common people, and the American Democracy, and his famous work reflects these passions. Another major poet of the era, Emily Dickenson, wrote unconventional, mystical, and deeply personal works. Whitman Dickenson Poe

42. Because I could not stop for Death— He kindly stopped for me— The Carriage held but just Ourselves— And Immortality. We slowly drove—He knew no haste And I had put away My labor and my leisure too, For His Civility— We passed the School, where Children strove At Recess—in the Ring— We passed the fields of Gazing Grain— We passed the Setting Sun— Or rather—He passed Us— The Dews drew quivering and chill— For only Gossamer, my Gown— My Tippet—only Tulle— We paused before a House that seemed A Swelling of the Ground— The Roof was scarcely visible— The Cornice—in the Ground— Since then—'tis Centuries—and yet Feels shorter than the Day I first surmised the Horses' Heads Were toward Eternity— Because I Could not Stop for Death Emily Dickenson

43. The Penny Press In the early 1800s, mass distribution of newspapers was an important development. Before the 1800s, most newspapers appealed to the well-educated readers. Typed once a week and costing around 6 cents, it was too expensive for the average worker. In the early 1800s, mass distribution of newspapers was an important development. Before the 1800s, most newspapers appealed to the well-educated readers. Typed once a week and costing around 6 cents, it was too expensive for the average worker. As more Americans learned to read and gained the right to vote, publishers began producing inexpensive newspapers, known as penny papers, which provided the kind of content most people wanted. Reports of fires, crimes, marriages, gossip, politics, and other local news made the papers an instant success with a mass audience. As more Americans learned to read and gained the right to vote, publishers began producing inexpensive newspapers, known as penny papers, which provided the kind of content most people wanted. Reports of fires, crimes, marriages, gossip, politics, and other local news made the papers an instant success with a mass audience. In 1830, Louis A. Godey founded Godey’s Lady’s Book, the first American magazine for women. The poet James Russell Lowell launched Atlantic Monthly, another magazine for the well educated, in 1857, while Harper’s Weekly covered everything from book reviews to news reports. In 1830, Louis A. Godey founded Godey’s Lady’s Book, the first American magazine for women. The poet James Russell Lowell launched Atlantic Monthly, another magazine for the well educated, in 1857, while Harper’s Weekly covered everything from book reviews to news reports.

44. Reforming Society The Second Great Awakening created an environment for social change. Spurred on by this revival of religion, as well as a heightened belief in the power of individuals to improve society and themselves, Americans engaged in reform movements. The Second Great Awakening created an environment for social change. Spurred on by this revival of religion, as well as a heightened belief in the power of individuals to improve society and themselves, Americans engaged in reform movements.

45. The Reform Spirit In 1841, a clergyman asked schoolteacher Dorothea Dix to lead a Sunday school class at a local prison. Dix saw mentally ill people lay neglected in dirty, unheated rooms. She began her crusade to improve conditions for the mentally ill and provide facilities and treatment they needed. In 1843, Dix wrote a letter to the Massachusetts legislature, calling for a new approach to mental illness. DIX More than a dozen states enacted prison reforms that created special institutions known as asylums for the mentally ill.

46. Reform movements of the mid 1800s came largely from the revival of religious fervor. Lyman Beecher, a prominent minister, believed it was the nation’s citizenry that should take charge of building a better society. Not the government. Reform movements of the mid 1800s came largely from the revival of religious fervor. Lyman Beecher, a prominent minister, believed it was the nation’s citizenry that should take charge of building a better society. Not the government. Under Beecher and other religious leaders, associations known as benevolent societies started to form in cities and towns. They began by spreading the word of God to convert nonbelievers. Later they sought to combat a number of social problems. Under Beecher and other religious leaders, associations known as benevolent societies started to form in cities and towns. They began by spreading the word of God to convert nonbelievers. Later they sought to combat a number of social problems. Many women joined the revivalist movement in hopes to improve their lives. Many women joined the revivalist movement in hopes to improve their lives. Some of the conditions these groups targeted were the excessive consumption of alcohol, prisons, and education. Some of the conditions these groups targeted were the excessive consumption of alcohol, prisons, and education.

47. The Temperance Movement Many reformers believed that the consumption of alcohol caused behaviors such as crime, disorder, and poverty. Alcohol caused men to beat their spouses and children and spend their entire earning on liquor. Many reformers believed that the consumption of alcohol caused behaviors such as crime, disorder, and poverty. Alcohol caused men to beat their spouses and children and spend their entire earning on liquor. Advocates of temperance, or moderation in the consumption of alcohol, had been active since the late 1700s, the new reformers energized the campaign. Preachers began preaching the evils of alcohol. The American Temperance Union was formed in 1833. Advocates of temperance, or moderation in the consumption of alcohol, had been active since the late 1700s, the new reformers energized the campaign. Preachers began preaching the evils of alcohol. The American Temperance Union was formed in 1833. Temperance societies pushed for laws prohibiting the sale of alcohol. In 1851, Maine passed the first state prohibition law. Other states followed. Some states passed “local option” laws, which allowed towns and villages to prohibit liquor sales within their boundaries. Temperance societies pushed for laws prohibiting the sale of alcohol. In 1851, Maine passed the first state prohibition law. Other states followed. Some states passed “local option” laws, which allowed towns and villages to prohibit liquor sales within their boundaries.

48. Prison Reform Conditions in prisons of America were terrible. Some were abandoned mine shafts. New facilities were being built in 1816. Conditions in prisons of America were terrible. Some were abandoned mine shafts. New facilities were being built in 1816. The prison reform movement was a belief in rehabilitating prisoners rather than merely locking them up. Officials imposed rigid discipline to rid criminals of their behavior that led them astray. Solitary confinement and the imposition of silence on work crews were meant to give prisoners the chance to meditate and think about their wrongdoings. The new prisons were called penitentiaries. The prison reform movement was a belief in rehabilitating prisoners rather than merely locking them up. Officials imposed rigid discipline to rid criminals of their behavior that led them astray. Solitary confinement and the imposition of silence on work crews were meant to give prisoners the chance to meditate and think about their wrongdoings. The new prisons were called penitentiaries.

49. Educational Reform In the early 1800s, many reformers sought to establish a system of public education (government-funded schools open to all citizens) because of the immigration and number of voters in between the 1820s and 1830s. In the early 1800s, many reformers sought to establish a system of public education (government-funded schools open to all citizens) because of the immigration and number of voters in between the 1820s and 1830s. Horace Mann (Massachusetts legislature) was the leader of the movement for public education and created a state board of education in Massachusetts. During his 12 years, he doubled teachers’ salaries, opened 50 new high schools, and established training schools for teachers. Horace Mann (Massachusetts legislature) was the leader of the movement for public education and created a state board of education in Massachusetts. During his 12 years, he doubled teachers’ salaries, opened 50 new high schools, and established training schools for teachers.

50. Attendance laws in northern states were created in the 1850s. Elementary schools were created to teach reading, writing, and arithmetic. Attendance laws in northern states were created in the 1850s. Elementary schools were created to teach reading, writing, and arithmetic. Rural areas were slower to support local and state supported schools because the children were needed to help with planting and harvesting. Rural areas were slower to support local and state supported schools because the children were needed to help with planting and harvesting. Calvin Wiley also helped establish state supported schools in North Carolina. By 1860, two-thirds of North Carolina’s white children attended school for part of the year. The rest of the south responded more slowly. Calvin Wiley also helped establish state supported schools in North Carolina. By 1860, two-thirds of North Carolina’s white children attended school for part of the year. The rest of the south responded more slowly.

51. Women’s Education Catharine Beecher pushed for more educational opportunities for girls and women. Catharine Beecher pushed for more educational opportunities for girls and women. Emma Willard founded a girls’ school in Vermont in 1814. Subjects such as cooking and etiquette were taught as well as history, math, and literature. Mary Lyon opened the first institution of higher education for women; in 1837, Mount Holyoke Female Seminary in Massachusetts was opened to women only. Emma Willard founded a girls’ school in Vermont in 1814. Subjects such as cooking and etiquette were taught as well as history, math, and literature. Mary Lyon opened the first institution of higher education for women; in 1837, Mount Holyoke Female Seminary in Massachusetts was opened to women only. In 1849, Elizabeth Blackwell became the first woman to earn a medical degree. In 1857, she founded the New York Infirmary for Women and Children; a hospital staffed entirely by women. In 1849, Elizabeth Blackwell became the first woman to earn a medical degree. In 1857, she founded the New York Infirmary for Women and Children; a hospital staffed entirely by women.

52. The Early Women’s Movement The Industrial Revolution began to change the roles of men and women in the 1800s. During the 1700s, economic activity took place in and around the home surviving in rural farm settings. In the mid 1800s, men went to work in factories while the women stayed at home tending to the house and children. The Industrial Revolution began to change the roles of men and women in the 1800s. During the 1700s, economic activity took place in and around the home surviving in rural farm settings. In the mid 1800s, men went to work in factories while the women stayed at home tending to the house and children.

53. “True Womanhood” “True Womanhood” Life became divided into two spheres, the workplace and the home. The home was a place for the women due to the dangers of the factories. Life became divided into two spheres, the workplace and the home. The home was a place for the women due to the dangers of the factories. Christian revivalism of the 1820s and 1830s influenced the American family. Women were viewed as more moral and charitable than men and were expected to be models of piety and virtue to their children and husbands. Christian revivalism of the 1820s and 1830s influenced the American family. Women were viewed as more moral and charitable than men and were expected to be models of piety and virtue to their children and husbands. The idea of women being homemakers and taking responsibilities of developing their children’s characters was known as “true womanhood.” Magazine articles and novels aimed at women reinforced the value of their role at home. In 1841, Catharine Beecher, a daughter of Minister Lyman Beecher, wrote a book called A Treatise on Domestic Economy. It argued that women could find fulfillment at home and gave instruction on childcare, cooking, and matters. The idea of women being homemakers and taking responsibilities of developing their children’s characters was known as “true womanhood.” Magazine articles and novels aimed at women reinforced the value of their role at home. In 1841, Catharine Beecher, a daughter of Minister Lyman Beecher, wrote a book called A Treatise on Domestic Economy. It argued that women could find fulfillment at home and gave instruction on childcare, cooking, and matters.

54. Women Seek Greater Rights Women Seek Greater Rights Many women did not believe the ideas of true womanhood were limiting. Instead, the new ideas implied that wives were now partners with their husbands and in some ways were morally superior to them. Many women did not believe the ideas of true womanhood were limiting. Instead, the new ideas implied that wives were now partners with their husbands and in some ways were morally superior to them. The idea that women had an important role to play in building a virtuous home was soon extended to making society more virtuous. Some began to argue that women needed greater political rights to promote their ideas. The idea that women had an important role to play in building a virtuous home was soon extended to making society more virtuous. Some began to argue that women needed greater political rights to promote their ideas. Margaret Fuller was an advocate for the idea of more political rights. Fuller believed if men and women were treated equally, it would end injustice in society. Margaret Fuller was an advocate for the idea of more political rights. Fuller believed if men and women were treated equally, it would end injustice in society.

55. In 1848, Lucretia Mott and Elizabeth Cady Stanton, two women active in the antislavery movement, organized the Seneca Falls Convention. This gathering of women reformers marked the beginning of an organized women’s movement. The convention issued a “Declaration of Sentiments and Resolutions” that began with the words of the Declaration of Independence: “…that all men and women are created equal…” Stanton shocked all the women in present by proposing that they should focus on gaining the right to vote. Seneca Falls is the beginning of the struggle for women’s voting rights.

56. The Abolitionist Movement In the mid 1800s, some Americans embarked on a crusade to abolish slavery. In the mid 1800s, some Americans embarked on a crusade to abolish slavery. The New Abolitionists In the 1830s, many Americans demanded an immediate end to slavery in the South. In the 1830s, many Americans demanded an immediate end to slavery in the South. Of all the movements of the early 1800s, the movement to end slavery was the most divisive. Of all the movements of the early 1800s, the movement to end slavery was the most divisive. By pitting the North against the South, it polarized the nation and helped bring about the Civil War. By pitting the North against the South, it polarized the nation and helped bring about the Civil War.

57. Early opposition to Slavery From the earliest days of the Republic, many Americans opposed slavery. From the earliest days of the Republic, many Americans opposed slavery. A nation based on principles of liberty and equality would have difficulty remaining true to its ideals if it continued to enslave human beings. A nation based on principles of liberty and equality would have difficulty remaining true to its ideals if it continued to enslave human beings. Religious groups spoke about the evils of slavery saying it was a sin (Quakers and Baptists). Religious groups spoke about the evils of slavery saying it was a sin (Quakers and Baptists).

58. Gradualism is the belief that slavery had to end gradually. The 1st would be to stop the slave trade, 2 nd to end slavery in the North and upper South, then finally end slavery in the Lower South. Gradualism is the belief that slavery had to end gradually. The 1st would be to stop the slave trade, 2 nd to end slavery in the North and upper South, then finally end slavery in the Lower South. Slaveholders would also be compensated for their loss. Slaveholders would also be compensated for their loss. This would give the South’s economy time to adjust its losses. This would give the South’s economy time to adjust its losses.

59. Colonization Many believed that ending slavery would not end racism in the United States. Some thought the best solution was to send African Americans back to Africa. In 1816, antislavery reformers founded the American Colonization Society (ACS) to move African Americans to Africa. Many supported this idea; James Madison, James Monroe, Henry Clay, Daniel Webster, and John Marshall. Many African Americans moved to Liberia

60. By 1821, the ACS had acquired land in West Africa. The following year many free African Americans boarded ships chartered by the society to take them to Africa. By 1847, the country of Liberia declared its independence and adopted a constitution based on the U.S. Constitution. The capital was named Monrovia, named for President Monroe. By 1821, the ACS had acquired land in West Africa. The following year many free African Americans boarded ships chartered by the society to take them to Africa. By 1847, the country of Liberia declared its independence and adopted a constitution based on the U.S. Constitution. The capital was named Monrovia, named for President Monroe. Colonization was very expensive and was never a realistic solution to racism. Many African Americans regarded the United States as their home and did not want to move to another continent. Colonization was very expensive and was never a realistic solution to racism. Many African Americans regarded the United States as their home and did not want to move to another continent. Only 12,000 African Americans moved to Africa between 1821 and 1860. Only 12,000 African Americans moved to Africa between 1821 and 1860.

61. Abolitionism Abolitionism Gradualism and colonization remained the main goal of antislavery groups until the 1830s, when a new idea, abolition, began to gain ground. Gradualism and colonization remained the main goal of antislavery groups until the 1830s, when a new idea, abolition, began to gain ground. Abolitionists argued that enslaved African Americans should be freed immediately. Abolitionists argued that enslaved African Americans should be freed immediately. There are several reasons that abolitionism gained support in the 1830s. There are several reasons that abolitionism gained support in the 1830s. It drew its strength from the Second Great Awakening, with its focus on sin and repentance. It drew its strength from the Second Great Awakening, with its focus on sin and repentance. Abolitionists believed slavery was an enormous evil. Abolitionists believed slavery was an enormous evil.

62. The first well known advocate of abolition was a free African American from North Carolina named David Walker, who published Appeal to the Colored Citizens of the World. In his pamphlet, Walker advocated violence and rebellion as the only way to end slavery. The most influential abolitionist of the day that led to the rapid development of a large movement was due to the efforts of William Lloyd Garrison. William Lloyd Garrison

63. William Lloyd Garrison William Lloyd Garrison Garrison was an assistant to Benjamin Lundy who was a Quaker and publisher of the Baltimore antislavery newspaper Genius of Universal Emancipation. In 1831, Garrison moved to Boston where he founded the antislavery newspaper, the Liberator. Garrison was an assistant to Benjamin Lundy who was a Quaker and publisher of the Baltimore antislavery newspaper Genius of Universal Emancipation. In 1831, Garrison moved to Boston where he founded the antislavery newspaper, the Liberator. In the Liberator, Garrison called for an immediate end to slavery. He condemned colonization and attacked the Constitution because it did not end slavery. In the Liberator, Garrison called for an immediate end to slavery. He condemned colonization and attacked the Constitution because it did not end slavery. Garrison believed that slavery was immoral and slaveholders were evil. The only option was immediate and complete emancipation, or the freeing of all enslaved people. In 1833, Garrison founded the American Anti-Slavery Society. Garrison believed that slavery was immoral and slaveholders were evil. The only option was immediate and complete emancipation, or the freeing of all enslaved people. In 1833, Garrison founded the American Anti-Slavery Society.

64. Many women also contributed to the movement. Prudence Crandall worked as a teacher and abolitionist in Connecticut, and Lucretia Mott (women’s right activist) often spoke out in favor of abolitionism as well. Many women also contributed to the movement. Prudence Crandall worked as a teacher and abolitionist in Connecticut, and Lucretia Mott (women’s right activist) often spoke out in favor of abolitionism as well. Sarah and Angelina Grimke came from slaveholding families in South Carolina who moved to the north to work openly against slavery. Sarah and Angelina Grimke came from slaveholding families in South Carolina who moved to the north to work openly against slavery. Sarah and Angelina Grimke

65. African American Abolitionists Free African Americans played an important role in the abolitionist movement. Mostly from the North, African Americans helped sell Garrison’s newspaper as well as write and speak out against slavery. They also took part in protests and demonstrations. Free African Americans played an important role in the abolitionist movement. Mostly from the North, African Americans helped sell Garrison’s newspaper as well as write and speak out against slavery. They also took part in protests and demonstrations.

66. Frederick Douglass was one of the most prominent African Americans in the abolitionist movement. In 1838, Douglass escaped slavery in Maryland by posing as a free African American sailor. He published his own newspaper call the North Star, and wrote an autobiography, Narrative of the life of Frederick Douglass (1845). Frederick Douglass was one of the most prominent African Americans in the abolitionist movement. In 1838, Douglass escaped slavery in Maryland by posing as a free African American sailor. He published his own newspaper call the North Star, and wrote an autobiography, Narrative of the life of Frederick Douglass (1845). Sojourner Truths gained her freedom in 1827 when New York freed all remaining enslaved people in the state. Lacking formal education, she used her speeches by telling stories of interests to abolitionists. Sojourner Truths gained her freedom in 1827 when New York freed all remaining enslaved people in the state. Lacking formal education, she used her speeches by telling stories of interests to abolitionists. Douglass Truths

67. The Response to Abolitionism Many people of the North and South opposed abolitionism for economic, political, and cultural reasons. Mainly in the South, they opposed Abolitionism because they feared that their entire way of life was under attack. Many people of the North and South opposed abolitionism for economic, political, and cultural reasons. Mainly in the South, they opposed Abolitionism because they feared that their entire way of life was under attack.

68. Reaction in the North While many Northerners disapproved of slavery, some opposed abolitionism even more. While many Northerners disapproved of slavery, some opposed abolitionism even more. They feared what it would do to the social system. They feared what it would do to the social system. Some white businesspeople warned it would lead to war between the North and the South. Some white businesspeople warned it would lead to war between the North and the South. Many felt it would create an influx of freed African Americans to the North, overwhelming the labor and housing markets. Many felt it would create an influx of freed African Americans to the North, overwhelming the labor and housing markets. Many in the North had no desire to see the South’s economy crumble; Southern planters owed money to Northern banks; South fed Northern cities cotton for textile mills. Many in the North had no desire to see the South’s economy crumble; Southern planters owed money to Northern banks; South fed Northern cities cotton for textile mills.

69. Abolitionists were attacked in the North. Abolitionists were attacked in the North. Garrison was stoned in Boston and Weld was attacked following his speeches. Garrison was stoned in Boston and Weld was attacked following his speeches. Arthur Tappan’s home was sacked in New York and Reverend Elijah P. Lovejoy was killed trying to protect his printing press. Arthur Tappan’s home was sacked in New York and Reverend Elijah P. Lovejoy was killed trying to protect his printing press. Northerners were opposed to Southern slave- catchers who kidnapped escaped slaves in the North and hauled them back south. Northerners were opposed to Southern slave- catchers who kidnapped escaped slaves in the North and hauled them back south. Several states in the North passed personal liberty laws restricting slave recapture. Several states in the North passed personal liberty laws restricting slave recapture.

70. Reaction in the South Most Southerners believed slavery was vital to Southern life. Most Southerners believed slavery was vital to Southern life. While the North built factories, the South relied on agriculture tied to cotton and enslaved people to harvest it. While the North built factories, the South relied on agriculture tied to cotton and enslaved people to harvest it. Southerners responded to criticisms of slavery by defending the institution. Southerners responded to criticisms of slavery by defending the institution. South Carolina’s governor called it a “national benefit”, while Thomas Dew, a leading Southern academic, claimed that most slaves had no desire for freedom because of their relationship with their owners. South Carolina’s governor called it a “national benefit”, while Thomas Dew, a leading Southern academic, claimed that most slaves had no desire for freedom because of their relationship with their owners.

71. Eight months after Garrison printed the Liberator in 1831, Nat Turner, an enslaved preacher, led a revolt that killed over 50 Virginians. Many Southerners felt that papers like the Liberator helped spark the rebellion. Eight months after Garrison printed the Liberator in 1831, Nat Turner, an enslaved preacher, led a revolt that killed over 50 Virginians. Many Southerners felt that papers like the Liberator helped spark the rebellion. Garrison’s paper did not even circulate in the South, but Southerners demanded the suppression of abolitionist material as a condition for remaining in the Union. Garrison’s paper did not even circulate in the South, but Southerners demanded the suppression of abolitionist material as a condition for remaining in the Union. Southern postal workers refused to deliver abolitionist newspapers. In 1836, the House of Representatives passed a gag rule providing that all abolitionist petitions be shelved without debate. Southern postal workers refused to deliver abolitionist newspapers. In 1836, the House of Representatives passed a gag rule providing that all abolitionist petitions be shelved without debate. The abolitionists of the time caused a great uproar and reminded America that the institution of slavery fundamentally divided the nation. The abolitionists of the time caused a great uproar and reminded America that the institution of slavery fundamentally divided the nation.