1. Infants, Children, and Adolescents Laura E. Berk 5th edition Chapter 1 History, Theory, and Research Strategies This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law: Any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network; Preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or in part of any images; Any rental, lease, or lending of the program.

2. Child development : Child development : a field of study devoted to understanding all aspects of human constancy and change from conception through adolescence. Developmental science : an interdisciplinary field devoted to the study of all changes we experience throughout the lifespan.

3. A common goal To describe and identify those factors that influence the consistencies and changes in young people during the first two decades of life. To better the lives of children. –To improve children’s health required an understanding of physical growth and nutrition –To treat children’s anxieties and behavior problems required information about personality and social development. –Child-rearing practices and experiences that would promote the well-being of their child.

4. Why … CHILDREN ? The critical period is a limited time span during which the child is biologically prepared to acquire certain adaptive behaviors but needs the support of an appropriately stimulating environment. Many researchers have investigated whether complex cognitive and social behaviors must be learned during certain periods.

6. Periods of Development PrenatalConception to birth Infancy and ToddlerhoodBirth to 2 years Early Childhood2 to 6 years Middle Childhood6 to 11 years Adolescence11 to 18 years Emerging Adulthood18 to 25 years

7. Domains of Development Physical Development : changes in body size, proportions, appearance, functioning of body systems, perceptual and motor capacities, and physical health. Cognitive Development : changes in intellectual abilities, including attention, memory, academic and everyday knowledge, problem solving, imagination, creativity and language.

8. Emotional and Social development : changes in emotional communication, self- understanding, knowledge about other people, interpersonal skills, friendships, intimate relationships, and moral reasoning and behavior. The three domains are not really distinct. Rather, they overlap and interact.

9. Domains of Development DomainChanges in Physical Body size & proportions, appearance Function of body systems, health Perceptual & motor capacities Cognitive Intellectual abilities Social Emotional communication Self-understanding, knowledge about others Interpersonal skills & relationships Moral reasoning & behavior

10. Theory An orderly, integrated set of statements that –Describes –Explains –Predicts behavior A good theory of infant- caregiver attachment would: Describe the behavior of babies around 6 to 8 months of age as they seek the affection and comfort of a familiar adult, explain how and why infants develop this strong desire to bond with a caregiver, Predict the consequences of this emotional bond for future relationships.

11. Describe –first goal of psychology is to describe the different ways that organisms behave. Explain –second goal of psychology is to explain the cause of behavior. GOALS OF PSYCHOLOGY

12. Predict –third goal of psychology is to predict how organisms will behave in certain situations Control –the fourth goal of psychology is to control an organism’s behavior

13. Theory helps us understand development and to know how to improve the welfare and treatment of children. But theories are influenced by the cultural values and belief systems of their times. A theory’s continued existence depends on scientific verification. It must be tested using a fair set of research procedures agreed on by the scientific community, and its findings must endure, or be replicated, over time.

14. Many theories offer very different ideas about what children are like and how they change. Also, children are complex beings; they change physically, cognitively, emotionally, and socially. No single theory has explained all these aspects. But the existence of many theories helps advance knowledge because researchers are continually trying to support, contradict, and integrate these different points of view.

15. Basic Issues in Development Theory Although there are many theories, we can easily organize them by looking at the stand they take on three basic issues: n Continuous or discontinuous? n One course of development or many possible courses? n Nature or nurture?

16. Continuous or Discontinuous Development? Some theorists believe that development is a smooth, continuous process. Children gradually add more of the same types of skills. Other theorists think that development takes place in discontinuous stages. Children change rapidly as they step up to a new level of development and then change very little for a while with each step, the child interprets and responds to the world in a qualitatively different way.

17. Continuous or Discontinuous Development

18. Stages Qualitative changes in thinking, feeling, and behaving that characterize specific periods of development. Development is much like climbing a staircase, with each step corresponding to a more mature, reorganized way of functioning. Change is fairly sudden rather than gradual and ongoing.

19. One Course of Development or Many? Contexts : children grow up in distinct contexts  unique combinations of personal and environmental circumstances that can result in different paths of change. Different circumstances foster different cognitive capacities, social skills, and feelings about the self and others. Contemporary theorists regard the contexts that mold development as many-layered and complex. Personal  include heredity and biological makeup. Circumstances  children’s everyday lives: community resources, societal values and priorities, and historical time period.

20. Nature and Nurture Nature Inborn, biologic givens Based on genetic inheritance Nurture Physical and social world Influence biological and psychological development Is the older child’s ability to think in more complex ways largely the result of an inborn timetable of growth, or is it primarily influenced by stimulation from parents and teachers?

21. A Balanced Point of View Today, some theorists believe that both continuous and discontinuous changes occur. A growing number regard heredity and environment as inseparably interwoven, each affecting the potential of the other to modify the child’s traits and capacities.

22. Historical Foundations In medieval times, the sixth through the fifteenth centuries, clear awareness existed of children as vulnerable beings and of childhood as a distinct developmental period. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the Puritan conception of original sin led to a harsh philosophy of child rearing, based on the view that children were born evil and had to be civilized through repressive measures.

23. Historical Views of Childhood Medieval Era and Earlier Childhood (to age 7 or 8) regarded as separate phase with special needs 16th CenturyPuritan “child depravity” views 17th CenturyJohn Locke “tabula rasa” or “blank slate” view 18th CenturyJean Jacques Rousseau “noble savages” view

24. The 17 th century Enlightenment brought a new emphasis on human dignity and respect that led to more humane conceptions of childhood. Locke’s notion of the child as a tabula rasa (blank slate) provided the basis for twentieth-century behaviorism, while Rousseau’s idea that children were noble savages (naturally endowed with a sense of right and wrong and an innate plan for orderly, healthy growth) foreshadowed the concepts of stage and maturation.

25. Scientific Beginnings Inspired by Darwin’s theory of evolution, efforts to observe the child directly began in the late 19 th and early 20 th centuries. Soon after, Hall and Gesell introduced the normative approach, which produced a large body of descriptive facts about children. In the early 1900s, Binet and Simon constructed the first successful intelligence test, which sparked interest in individual differences in development and led to a heated controversy over nature versus nurture.

26. Early Scientific Study of Development Evolutionary Theory Darwin’s ideas of natural selection and survival of the fittest are still influential. Normative Approach Hall & Gessell: Age-related averages based on measurements of large numbers of people. Mental Testing Movement Simon & Binet: Early developers in intelligence tests

27. Mid-Twentieth-Century Theories In the 1930s and 1940s, psychiatrists and social workers turned to the psychoanalytic perspective for help in treating children’s emotional problems. In Freud’s psychosexual theory, children move through five stages, during which three portions of the personality – id, ego, and superego – become integrated.

28. Freud’s Three Parts of the Personality Id Largest portion of the mind Unconscious, present at birth Source of biological needs & desires Ego Conscious, rational part of mind Emerges in early infancy Redirects id impulses acceptably Superego The conscience Develops from ages 3 to 6, from interactions with caregivers

30. The Psychoanalytic perspective Freud’s view of personality development, in which children move through a series of stages in which they confront conflicts between biological drives and social expectations. The way these conflicts are resolved determines psychological adjustment.

31. Psychosexual theory Freud’s theory, which emphasizes that how parents manage children’s sexual and aggressive drives in the first few years of life is crucial for healthy personality development.

32. Psychosocial theory Erikson’s theory, which emphasizes that at each Freudian stage, individuals not only develop a unique personality but also acquire attitudes and skills that help them become active, contributing members of their society.

33. Freud’s Psychosexual Stages Oral Anal Phallic Latency Genital

34. Oral (birth – 1 year) The new ego directs the baby’s sucking activities toward breast or bottle. If oral needs are not met appropriately, the individual may develop such habits as thumb sucking, fingernail biting, and pencil chewing in childhood and overeating and smoking in later life.

35. Anal (1 – 3 years) Toddlers and preschoolers enjoy holding and releasing urine and feces. Toilet training becomes a major issue between parent and child. If parents insist that children be trained before they are ready, or if they make too few demands, conflicts about anal control may appear in the form of extreme orderliness and cleanliness or messiness and disorder.

36. Phallic ( 3 – 6 years) As preschoolers take pleasure in genital stimulation, Freud’s Oedipus conflict for boys and Electra conflict for girls arise. Children feel a sexual desire for the other- sex parent. To avoid punishment, they give up this desire and adopt the same- sex parent’s characteristics and values. As a result, the superego is formed, and children feel guilty each time they violate its standards.

37. Latency (6 – 11 years) Sexual instincts die down, and the superego develops further. The child acquires new social values from adults and same-sex peers outside the family.

38. Genital (adolescence) With puberty, the sexual impulses of the phallic stage reappear. If development has been successful during earlier stages, it leads to marriage, mature sexuality, and the birth and rearing of children. This stage extends through adulthood.

39. Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages Basic trust v. mistrust Birth–1 yearIdentity v. identity confusion Adolescence Autonomy v. shame and doubt 1–3 yearsIntimacy v. isolation Emerging Adulthood Initiative v. guilt 3–6 yearsGenerativity v. stagnation Adulthood Industry v. inferiority 6–11 yearsIntegrity v. despair Old Age

40. Basic trust >< mistrust (oral) Birth – 1 year. From warm, responsive care, infants gain a sense of trust, or confidence, that the world is good. Mistrust occurs when infants have to wait too long for comfort and are handles harshly.

41. Autonomy >< shame and doubt (anal) 1 – 3 years. Using new mental and motor skills, children want to choose and decide for themselves. Autonomy is fostered when parents permit reasonable free choice and do not force or shame the child.

42. Initiative >< Guilt (Pahllic) 3 – 6 years. Through make-believe play, children experiment with the kind of person they can become. Initiative – a sense of ambition and responsibility – develops when parents support their child’s new sense of purpose. The danger is that parents will demand too much self-control, which leads to over control, meaning too much guilt.

43. Industry >< inferiority (Latency) 6 – 11 years At school, children develop the capacity to work and cooperate with others. Inferiority develops when negative experiences at home, at school, or with peers lead to feelings of incompetence.

44. Identity >< Role confusion (Genital) Adolescence The adolescent tries to answer the questions, who am I, and what is my place in society? By exploring values and vocational goals, the young person forms a personal identity. The negative outcome is confusion about future adult roles.

45. Intimacy >< isolation Emerging adulthood As the quest for identity continues, young people also work on establishing intimate ties to others. Because of earlier disappointments, some individuals cannot form close relationships and remain isolated.

46. Generativity >< Stagnation Adulthood Generativity means giving to the next generation through child rearing, caring for other people, or productive work. The person who fails in these ways feels an absence of meaningful accomplishment.

47. Integrity >< despair Old age In this final stage, individuals reflect on the kind of person they have been. Integrity results from feeling that life was worth living as it happened. Old people who are dissatisfied with their lives fear death.

48. Behaviorism & Social Learning Classical Conditioning Stimulus – Response Operant Conditioning Reinforcers and Punishments Social Learning Modeling

49. Behaviorism An approach that regards directly observable events – stimuli and responses – as the appropriate focus of study and that views the development of behavior as taking place through classical and operant conditioning.

50. Social learning theory An approach that emphasizes the role of modeling, or observational learning, in the development of behavior.

51. Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development SensorimotorBirth – 2 years Preoperational2 – 7 years Concrete Operational 7 – 11 years Formal Operational 11 years and older

52. Sensorimotor Birth – 2 years Infants “think” by acting on the world with their eyes, ears, hands, and mouth. As a result, they invent ways of solving sensorimotor problems, such as pulling a lever to hear the sound of a music box, finding hidden toys, and putting objects in and taking them out of containers.

53. Preoperational2 – 7 years Preschool children use symbols to represent their earlier sensorimotor discoveries. Development of language and make-believe play takes place. However, thinking lacks the logic of the two remaining stages.

54. Concrete operational 7– 11 years Children’s reasoning becomes logical. School-age children understand that a certain amount of lemonade or play dough remains the same even after its appearance changes. They also organize objects into hierarchies of classes and subclasses. However, thinking galls short of adult intelligence. It is not yet abstract.

55. Formal operational11 years on The capacity for abstract, systematic thinking enables adolescents, when faced with a problem, to start with a hypothesis, deduce testable inferences, and isolate and combine variables to see which inferences are confirmed. Adolescents can also evaluate the logic of verbal statements without referring to real-world circumstances.

56. Information-Processing Flowchart Showing the steps that a 5 year old used to solve a bridge-building problem. Her task was to use blocks varying in size, shape, and weight, some of which were planklike, to construct a bridge across a “river” too wide for any single block to span. The child discovered how to counterweight and balance the bridge. The arrows reveal that even after building a successful counterweight, she returned to earlier, unsuccessful strategies, which seemed to help her understand why the counterweight approach worked.

57. Information processing An approach that views the human mind as a symbol-manipulating system through which information flows and that regards cognitive development as a continuous process.

58. Ethology & Evolutionary Dev. Psy Ehology is concerned with the adaptive, or survival, value of behavior and its evolutionary history. Lorenz and Tinbergen observed behavior patterns that promote survival  imprinting : the early following behavior of certain baby birds, such as geese, which ensures that the young will stay close to the mother and be fed and protected from danger. Imprinting takes place during an early, restricted period of development. If the mother goose is absent during this time but an object resembling her in important features is present, young goslings may imprint on it instead.

59. Sensitive Period An optimal time for certain capacities to emerge Individual is especially responsive to environment Later development is hard to induce Boundaries less defined than a critical period Observations of imprinting led to a major concept in child development: the critical period. It is limited time span during which the child is biologically prepared to acquire certain adaptive behaviors but needs the support of an appropriately stimulating environment.

60. Attachment Inspired by observations of imprinting, British psychoanalyst John Bowlby applied ethological theory to understanding the human infant – caregiver relationship. The development of attachment in human infants is a lengthy process involving changes in psychological structures that lead the baby to form a deep affectionate tie with the caregiver.

61. Evolutionary Developmental Psychology Seeks to understand adaptive value of human competencies Studies cognitive, emotional and social competencies and change with age Expands upon ethology

62. Evolutionary psychologists are not just concerned with the genetic and biological basis of development. They realize that humans’large brain and extended childhood resulted from the need to master an increasingly complex environment, so they are also interested in learning. Evolutionary psychologists want to understand the entire organism- environment system.

63. Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory Transmission of culture to new generation –Beliefs, customs, skills Social interaction necessary to learn culture –Cooperative dialogue with more knowledgeable members of society

64. Microsystem, In ecological systems theory, the innermost level of the environment, consisting of activities and interaction patterns in the child’s immediate surroundings. Mesosystem, In ecological systems theory, connections between children’s immediate settings. Exosystem, In ecological systems theory, social settings that do not contain children but that affect children’s experiences in immediate settings. Examples are parents’workplace, health and welfare services available in the community, and parents’ social networks.

65. Rather than envisioning a single line of stage wise or continous change, dynamic systems theorists conceive of development as a web of fibers branching out in many direct5ions. Each strand in the web represents a skill within the major domains of development – physical, cognitive and emotional/ social. The differing directions of the strands signify possible variations in paths and outcomes as the child masters skills necessary to participate in diverse contexts. The interconnections of the strands within the vertical windows portray stagelike changes – periods of major transformation in which various skills work together as a functioning whole. As the web expands, skills become more numerous, complex, and effective.

66. Systematic Observation Naturalistic Observation In the “field” or natural environment where behavior happens Structured Observations Laboratory situation set up to evoke behavior of interest All participants have equal chance to display behavior

67. Interviews Clinical Interview Flexible, conversational style Probes for participant’s point of view Structured Interview Each participant is asked same questions in same way May use questionnaires, get answers from groups

68. Psychophysiological Methods Measures of autonomic nervous system activity –Heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, pupils, stress hormones Measures of Brain Function –EEG –Functional brain imaging (fMRI)

69. Correlation Coefficients Magnitude Size of the number between 0 and 1. Closer to one (positive or negative) is a stronger relationship Direction Indicated by + or - sign. Positive (+) means, as one variable increases, so does the other Negative (-) means, as one variable increase, the other decreases.

70. Independent and Dependent Variables Independent Experimenter changes, or manipulates Expected to cause changes in another variable. Dependent Experimenter measures, but does not manipulate Expected to be influenced by the independent variable

71. Modified Experiments Field Experiments Use rare opportunities for natural assignment in natural settings Natural Experiment Compare differences in treatment that already exist Groups chosen to match characteristics as much as possible

72. Designs for Studying Development Longitudinal Same participants studied repeatedly at different ages Cross-sectional People of differing ages all studied at the same time Longitudinal- Cross-sectional Same groups of different-aged people studied repeatedly as they change ages. Microgenetic Same participant studied repeatedly over a short period as they master a task

73. Children’s Research Rights Protection from harm Informed consent Privacy Knowledge of results Beneficial treatments