1. THE CROWD IN THE FRENCH REVOLUTION
Opened door to the investigation of the nature of popular support for the French Revolution and the relationship of lower classes with the revolutionary leadership
First published in 1959
George Rudé

2. REVISES STEREOTYPES Re-examined stereotypes of revolutionary crowds
Found that crowds were made up of “small workshop masters, independent craftsmen, shopkeepers, and journeymen”
Men with jobs, a little property and who had a stake in their community
Social groups which composed leadership of the Revolution were missing from the crowds
Crowds and revolutionary leadership composed of two different groups of people

3. WHAT CAUSED CROWDS TO TAKE ACTION?
Revolutionary crowds were not passive pawns of certain revolutionary leaders
They “absorbed and adapted” the slogans and ideas of that leadership and also developed their own program of action
They “enthusiastically supported and assimilated the objects, ideas, and slogans of the political groups in the National Assembly and Jacobin clubs whose leadership they acknowledged and in whose name they petitioned and took up arms”
But they also had demands and interests of their own
Especially the “compelling need” for the cheap provision of bread and other necessities

4. CONCLUSION
“the primary and most constant motive impelling revolutionary crowds was the concern for the provision of cheap and plentiful food”
Does not mean that crowds were apolitical
In their pursuit of “cheap and plentiful food,” they politicized their uprisings by adopting many of the political ideas of the revolutionary leaders
Without these ideas, the crowds would have remained without real purpose
With these ideas, crowds had a powerful impact on the development and outcome of the Revolution

5. TRANSMISSION OF IDEAS Pamphlets and newspapers—the “popular press”
Political education common people received when they joined the National Guard and various revolutionary clubs and committees
Spoken word in public places
Crowds often formed spontaneously
On the basis of rumors
But, once in motion and influenced by propaganda from sources listed above, they did become politicized and help push the Revolution
Until 1795

6. WHAT IS A SANS-CULOTTE?
Recognizable by their clothing and social behavior
They estimated a person’s worth by his external appearance
If you dressed like an aristocrat, you were an aristocrat and an enemy of the Revolution
Also hated “aristocratic behavior”
Came to believe that anyone with wealth and property was an aristocrat and enemy of the Revolution
Not opposed to private property per se
Against the possession of large amounts of property by those who had inherited it or use inherited money to buy it

7. CLASS-CONSCIOUS PROLETARIAT?
Being urban consumers and small producers, they were hostile to large scale commercial capitalism
Hostility turned to violence during 1793
Definition of a sans-culottes therefore based on who they were against
Aristocrats
Anyone who lived off unearned income
Large merchants
But sans-culottes did not have a clearly developed class consciousness
You were considered a sans-culotte by they way you acted, dressed, and by your attitude towards the wealthy
Not precisely by your social station

8. SANS-CULOTTES DEMANDS I
Wanted to guarantee all people equal opportunity
Not based on theory
Based in response to the pressure of events and the problems of daily living
Recurrent food shortages cause they to demand equal distribution of food
From the idea of equality in food came ideas of equality in everything
Wealth, property, etc.

9. SANS-CULOTTES DEMANDS II
Not against property rights
Believed that property should be shared equally through all levels of society
Thereby insuring everyone a decent livelihood
Tried to put idea into practice
Advocated such programs as high taxation of rich and the Maximum
Sans-culottes motivated by their hard living conditions, not the power of ideas
Their demand for equality arose from the need for steady, cheap supply of food
Tended to support concrete measures rather than abstract expressions of general principles

10. SANS-CULOTTE SOCIAL IDEAL
Social ideal was a society of small producers
Each person owning their own, small production unit
Believed state should intervene and prevent growth of large production concerns and monopolies
Never realized this was an impossible dream
That system of small enterprise would inevitably turn into system of large, concentrated enterprises
Antagonism between their idealized social dream and reality would ultimately defeat sans-culottes movement

11. SANS-CULOTTE POLITICAL ASPIRATIONS
Primary concept was the idea that sovereignty resided in the people
Not an abstract principle but a concrete reality
Meant that they, united in the neighborhood assemblies, should exercise their political rights
Should have final say in approving laws, should have right to bear arms, should have the right to rebel when laws violated their rights

12. NEIGHBORHOOD ASSEMBLIES
Viewed their neighborhood assemblies as watchdogs over government activity
Not as local legislatures
Needed to be permanent
Tended to skip meetings when there was not a crisis
Wasted much potential power

13. RIGHT TO REBEL Believed in right to rebel
Did not necessarily mean armed insurrection
Could also mean “continual state of useful defiance”
Refusal to obey unjust laws
Could also mean mass demonstration
Attack on the Tuilieries Palace

14. PUBLIC POLITICS Believed political life was a public affair
Considered publicity and public demonstration as a civic duty
Publicity meant such things as roll-call voting
No secret ballot
Also meant denunciation
Public accusation of a person as enemy of the Revolution
Justified as a means to fight aristocratic enemies of the Revolution
Therefore had no odious connotations

15. SANS-CULOTTE LEISURE
Militant sans-culottes spent most of their time engaged in politics
Especially neighborhood assemblies
Symbol was red cap and pike
Used informal pronoun “tu” instead of the more formal “vous”
Wanted to abolish all insignias of rank in army
Sang patriotic songs, talked politics and listening to the reading of newspapers in taverns
Demanded rent ceilings
Demanded cheap, good quality bread in adequate supplies
Passionate desire for equality stemmed from their overwhelming concern for food

16. FALL OF THE SANS-CULOTTES
Collapsed after death of Robespierre
Jacobins had enlisted support of sans-culottes
But they were uneasy allies
Sans-culottes insistence on popular sovereignty interfered with government efficiency
Sans-culottes unhappy with Jacobin tendency to concentrate on abstract expressions of equality instead of concrete implementation of idea
Wanted action, not words
Disagreed on economic issues
Differences in goals and outlook became glaring by 1794

17. WHY DID THEY LET THEMSELVES BE DESTROYED?
Plain, old-fashioned fatigue
Many had joined the army
Perils of success
Many dropped out once their personal demands had been met
Not a class but a coalition of various social groups united by their hatred of aristocracy and desire for a cheap, steady supply for bread
No alternative for the future except a vague concept of a society of small producers
An idea already out-of-date

18. REVOLUTIONARY WOMEN Women have not been studied until recently
Some stuff on symbolic role
Some stuff on famous women
Mme Roland and Claire Lacombe
But what about ordinary women?
Madame Roland

19. ROLE OF ORDINARY WOMEN
Worked as servants before marriage and at home for a manufacturing contractor after marriage
Sometimes performed jobs men wouldn’t do
Important component of family economy
Other important functions as well
Keeping family together
Clung more devotedly to their families than men
Kept food on table in times of shortage
Had right to riot if she was unable to get enough food
Food riot was therefore a predominantly female terrain

20. POLITICZATION OF WOMEN
Participation in food riots made them aware of political issues involved in food shortages
Made them see beyond their family-oriented issues to the larger picture of how the Revolution would solve the root causes of their problems
Did not happen until 1792

21. FEMALE ACTIVISM Formed club des femmes in 1792
Demanded fixed prices for food
Supported the war effort
Donated household linen for bandages
Sent patriotic petitions to government
Swore to carry out “internal war” against traitors
Sometimes went to ugly extremes
Tended to be more frenzied, more intense, and more vindictive than men
Although opportunities to express these emotions were more limited

22. WHAT CAUSED VIOLENT EMOTIONS?
Revolution hit poor families hard
War removed breadwinners
Political involvement kept husbands away from family
Women gradually accumulated experiences that would ultimately sour them on the Revolution

23. COMPLETE BURN OUT Famine of 1795
Women spent more and more time in food lines
Government abandons rationing and fixed prices in 1795
Women pawn possession
Participate in food riots
Sexually selective results of malnutrition and starvation appear
Women hit harder than men
Miscarriages, stillborn and malformed babies, had to watch children weaken and die
Food riots of 1795 were last gasp before women slipped into the twilight world of the weak and worn-out

24. RESULTS Increased suicides Revival of Catholicism
Formerly women had been anti-Church
Many women began to feel guilty about this after 1795 and returned to the Church
With a vengeance
After 1795, poor women dropped out the Revolution and returned to religion for comfort

25. WHO CAN BLAME THEM?
Revolution, war, and famine had threatened or destroyed families of women
At least the Church stood for integrity of family
More important to women than politics
Women forced to conclude that the price they had paid for the intangible benefits of the Revolution had been far too high