1. Behavioral and Social Cognitive Approaches
CHAPTER 7
Behavioral and Social Cognitive Approaches

2. Behavioral and Cognitive Approaches to Learning
Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience. There are five major approaches to learning.

3. Behavioral and Cognitive Approaches to Learning
Classical
Conditioning
Operant
Conditioning

4. Ivan Pavlov – Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which an organism learns to connect or associate stimuli. A neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response.

5. Classical Conditioning

6. Classical Conditioning Principles
Generalization
The tendency of a new stimulus similar to the original conditioned stimulus to produce a similar response.
Discrimination
The organism responds to certain stimuli but not others.
Extinction
The weakening of the conditioned response (CR) in the absence of the unconditioned response (UCS).

7. Systematic Desensitization
Reduces anxiety by getting the individual to associate deep relaxation with successive
visualizations of
increasingly
anxiety-producing
situations.

8. Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning Theory into Practice
Patty does poorly on a math test. This makes her feel anxious. From that point on, she always becomes anxious when taking a math test. As the school year progresses, she begins experiencing anxiety when she has tests in other subject areas as well.
Q.1: Identify the UCS in the example above.
Q.2: Identify the UCR in the example above.
Q.3: Identify the CS in the example above.
Q.4: Identify the CR in the example above.
A1: The unconditioned stimulus is doing poorly on the math test.
A2: The unconditioned response is anxiety. Anxiety is a natural response to failure.
A3: The conditioned stimulus is math tests. Once Patty has associated the test with failure, she begins to experience anxiety in response to math tests.
A4: The conditioned response is anxiety.

9. Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning Theory into Practice
Patty does poorly on a math test. This makes her feel anxious. From that point on, she always becomes anxious when taking a math test. As the school year progresses, she begins experiencing anxiety when she has tests in other subject areas as well.
A: She is experiencing stimulus generalization. She has generalized her anxiety response to similar stimuli—tests in other content areas.
Q: Why would Patty begin to experience anxiety in response to tests in content areas other than math?

10. Evaluation of Classical Conditioning
Good at explaining how neutral stimuli become associated with unlearned, involuntary responses
Good at understanding students’ anxieties and fears
Not as effective at explaining voluntary behaviors

11. Thorndike’s Law of Effect
Operant Conditioning
…is a form of learning in which the consequences of behavior produce changes in the probability that the behavior will occur.
Thorndike’s Law of Effect
Behavior
Positive outcome
Behavior strengthened
Negative outcome
Behavior weakened

12. Skinner’s Operant Conditioning
Consequences are contingent on the organism’s behavior.
Reinforcement increases the probability that a behavior will occur.
Punishment decreases the probability that a behavior will occur.

13. Operant Conditioning Principles
Generalization
Giving the same response to similar stimuli.
Discrimination
Differentiating among stimuli or environmental events.
Extinction
Previously reinforced response is no longer reinforced and the response decreases.
7.13

14. Applied Behavior Analysis
…is applying principles of operant conditioning to change human behavior.

15. Increasing Desirable Behaviors
Choose effective
reinforcers.
Consider contracting.
Make reinforcers
contingent and timely.
Use negative reinforcement
effectively.
Select the BEST
reinforcement schedule.
Use prompts and shaping.

16. Applied Behavior Analysis
A  B  C

17. Reinforcement: Shaping and Fading
Shaping: Involves teaching new behaviors by reinforcing successive approximations of the desired behavior.
First, reward any response.
Next, reward responses that resemble the desired behavior.
Finally, reward only target behavior.
Fading: Slowly removing reinforcement
Use to initiate behavior.
Once desired behavior is consistent, slowly reduce or remove reinforcement.

18. Reinforcement Schedules
Fixed-Ratio Reinforce after a set number of responses
Variable-Ratio Reinforce after an average but unpredictable number of responses
Fixed-Interval Reinforce appropriate response after a fixed amount of time
Variable-Interval Reinforce appropriate response after a variable amount of time

19. Reinforcement Schedules

20. “Eat your dinner and you can go out to play.”
Reinforcement
Guidelines for the Classroom:
Initial learning is better with continuous reinforcement.
Students on fixed schedules show less persistence, faster response extinction.
Students show greatest persistence on variable-interval schedule.
The Premack principle states that a high-probability activity can serve as a reinforcer for a low-probability activity.
“Eat your dinner and you can go out to play.”

21. What would you do to increase the frequency of these behaviors?
Your class quiets down when you are ready to start a lesson
An eighth grader hands in his homework
The class lines up for lunch in an orderly way
Your social studies class listens attentively to a classmate giving a presentation
A fourth grader asks you insightful questions during a science lesson

22. Identify positive reinforcement, the Premack principle, and negative reinforcement in the following examples:
Katya sits at the front of the auditorium where a speech is being given to get away from the talking that is going on in the back.
Thomas puts his toys away more frequently now because he earns colored stickers when he does.
Nickie is finishing more of her homework now because she is allowed to listen to CDs when she is done.

23. Operant Conditioning
Response Cost: removal of pre-established reinforcement
Time Out: removal of reinforcing situation

24. Caveats of Time Out Child must understand what is going on
Adults must be aware
Time out area should be humane and safe
Time out area should be nonreinforcing
Time out should not be used for extended periods of time
Time out cannot be used to exclude children from education

25. Operant Conditioning
Response Cost: removal of pre-established reinforcement
Time Out: removal of reinforcing situation
Satiation/Negative Practice: reduce negative behavior through overload of positive behavior

26. Decreasing Undesirable Behaviors
1. Use differential reinforcement by reinforcing more appropriate behavior.
2. Withdraw positive reinforcement (extinction) from a child’s inappropriate behavior.
3. Remove desirable stimuli through “time-out” and “response cost.”
4. Present aversive stimuli (punishment).

27. How would you attempt to decrease the following behaviors?
Andrew likes to utter profanities every now and then
Sandy tells you to quit bugging her when you ask her questions
Matt likes to mess up other students’ papers
Rebecca frequently talks with other students around her while you are explaining or demonstrating something

28. Skinner’s Operant Conditioning Theory into Practice
Nick frequently gets out of his seat and entertains his classmates with humorous remarks. Mr. Lincoln often scolds Nick for his behavior. However, Nick’s classmates laugh when Nick makes remarks. The scolding rarely has any impact. Nick continues with his antics.
Q.1: What is Mr. Lincoln attempting to do when he scolds Nick?
Q.2: Why does Nick continue his antics in spite of being scolded?
Q.3: What are three strategies Mr. Lincoln could try to keep Nick more on task?
A1: He is attempting to present Nick with an aversive stimulus—he is attempting to punish Nick.
A2: Nick’s classmates are reinforcing his behavior by laughing and/or Nick does not mind being scolded. Perhaps he enjoys the attention.
A3: Differential reinforcement—he could reinforce Nick for behaving appropriately
Contracting—he could contract with Nick. If Nick behaves appropriately for a period of time, he would receive some sort of reinforcement
Prompting—he could develop a signal to Nick to get back on task. This could be a frown, a tap on the shoulder or desk, or just making eye contact.
Terminate reinforcement—he could stop giving Nick attention for his behavior (this may not work because it is difficult to elicit the cooperation of the rest of the class to not laugh at something that is funny)
Remove desirable stimuli—Nick may benefit from time-out
Response cost—Nick could lose privileges when he misbehaves
7.16

29. Evaluation of Operant Conditioning
Good job of describing how teachers give rewards and take away rewards to modify behavior
Critics argue places too much emphasis on external control of behavior
Critics also point out potential ethical problems exist when used inappropriately

30. Reflection Reflection:
In your educational experience, what types of incentives did teachers use?
How effective was their use? Why were they effective or ineffective?
Classroom Observation Video: “Incentives”
Please note: Some of these videos are very large; large videos may take a minute or two to download. You will need QuickTime player to view the videos.

31. Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory
Social, cognitive, and behavioral factors play important roles in learning.
Self-efficacy: The belief that one can master a situation and produce positive outcomes.
Observational learning occurs when a person observes and imitates someone else’s behavior.

32. Bandura’s Reciprocal Determinism
P/C Personal and cognitive factors E
Environment B
Behavior

33. Bandura’s Contemporary Model of Observational Learning
Attention
Students are more likely to
be attentive to high-status
models (teachers).
Retention
Student retention will be improved when teachers give logical and clear demonstrations.
Production
Poor motor ability inhibits
reproduction of the model’s
behavior. Help improve skills.
Motivation
When given a reinforcement,
modeling increases.

34. Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory Theory into Practice
Nick frequently gets out of his seat and entertains his classmates with humorous remarks. Mr. Lincoln often scolds Nick for his behavior. However, Nick’s classmates laugh when Nick makes remarks. The scolding rarely has any impact. Nick continues with his antics. After several days of this, other boys in the class begin to get out of their seats and make humorous remarks as well.
A1: They have learned from observing Nick that such behavior results in reinforcement from peers. Therefore, they imitate him.
A2: Since children are more likely to imitate a high status model, we might assume that Nick has high status among his peers.
Q.1: Why do the other boys begin to misbehave? Explain.
Q.2: What does this say about Nick?

35. Classroom Use of Observational Learning
Decide what type of
model you will be
Demonstrate and teach
new behaviors
Use peers as
effective models
Use mentors as
models
Consider the models
children observe
in the media

36. Self-Reflection
In terms of my final course grades, I am trying very hard to:
Earn all As
Earn all As and Bs
Keep my overall GPA at or above the minimally acceptable level at Lycoming

37. Self-Reflection (con’t)
As I am reading or studying a textbook:
I often notice when my attention is wandering, and I immediately get my mind back on my work.
I sometimes notice when my attention is wandering, but not always.
I often get so lost in daydreams that I waste a lot of time.

38. Self-Reflection (con’t)
Whenever I finish a study session:
I write down how much time I have spent on my schoolwork.
I make a mental note of how much time I have spent on my schoolwork.
I don’t really think much about the time I have spent.

39. Self-Reflection (con’t)
When I turn in an assignment:
I usually have a good idea of the grade I will get on it.
I am often surprised by the grade I get.
I don’t think much about the quality of what I have done.

40. Self-Reflection (con’t)
When I do exceptionally well on an assignment:
I feel good about my performance and might reward myself in some way.
I feel good about my performance but don’t do anything special for myself afterward.
I don’t feel much differently than I had before I received a grade on the assignment.

41. A Model of Self-Regulatory Learning
Self-Evaluation and Monitoring
Monitoring Outcomes and Refining Strategies
Goal Setting and Strategic Planning
Putting a Plan into Action and Monitoring It

42. Characteristics of Self-Regulated Learners
Establish goals and standards for their own performance
Plan a course of action for a learning task
Control and monitor their cognitive processes and progress during a learning task

43. I have to remember to go slowly to get it right
I have to remember to go slowly to get it right. Look carefully at this one, now look at these carefully. Is this one different? Yes, it has an extra leaf. Good, I can eliminate this one. Now, let’s look at this one. I think it’s this one, but let me first check the others. Good, I’m going slow and carefully. Okay, I think it’s this one.

44. Characteristics of Self-Regulated Learners (con’t)
Monitor and try to control their motivation and emotions
Seek assistance and support when they need it
Evaluate the final outcomes of their efforts
Self-impose consequences for their performance

45. Evaluating the Social Cognitive Perspective
Provides important insights to understanding children
Emphasis on self-responsibility as opposed to being controlled by others
Use of self-enacted strategies can significantly improve students’ learning
Critics feel still places too much emphasis on behavior and external factors