1. CHAPTER 13: COUNTABLE AND NONCOUNTABLE NOUNS

2. (1). May be preceded by a or an in the singular,
PLURAL
COUNTABLE NOUN
a book
one book
books
some books
two books
many books
few books
a few books
A count noun:
(1). May be preceded by a or an in the singular,
(2). Takes a final -s or –es in the plural
NON
money
some money
a lot of money
much money
little money
a little money
A noncount noun:
(1). Is not preceded by a or an;
(2). Has no plural form; does not take a final –s

3. Following is a list of some common nouns which are usually or always used as noncount nouns:
Advice work* weather clothing fruit**
Information homework water furniture
Foods housework rain jewelry
Bread evidence snow luggage
butter
Intelligence wind machinery cheese
Slang ignorance air money
Coffee vocabulary knowledge dew
Music meat significance fog
Postage milk fun hail
Scenery pepper enjoyment courage
Heat traffic rice happiness
Honesty humidity transportation salt
Sadness luck lighting baggage
sugar

4. Work is used as a count noun when it means “ a work of art”; e. g
*Work is used as a count noun when it means “ a work of art”; e.g., There are many works of art in the museum. (Compare: I have some work to do tonight.)
**Many food terms are used as count nouns when they mean “a kind of”;e.g. An orange is a fruit. (Compare: I had fruit for dessert.)

5. BE CAREFUL with the noun 'hair' which is normally uncountable in English:
She has long blonde hair
It can also be countable when referring to individual hairs:
My father's getting a few grey hairs now

6. Chapter 15: Transition Signals

7. Transitional Words and Phrases
Illustration
Thus, for example, for instance, namely, to illustrate, in other words, in particular, specifically, such as.
Contrast
On the contrary, contrarily, notwithstanding, but, however, nevertheless, in spite of, in contrast, yet, on one hand, on the other hand, rather, or, nor, conversely, at the same time, while this may be true.
Addition
And, in addition to, furthermore, moreover, besides, than, too, also, both-and, another, equally important, first, second, etc., again, further, last, finally, not only-but also, as well as, in the second place, next, likewise, similarly, in fact, as a result, consequently, in the same way, for example, for instance, however, thus, therefore, otherwise.
Time
After, afterward, before, then, once, next, last, at last, at length, first, second, etc., at first, formerly, rarely, usually, another, finally, soon, meanwhile, at the same time, for a minute, hour, day, etc., during the morning, day, week, etc., most important, later, ordinarily, to begin with, afterwards, generally, in order to, subsequently, previously, in the meantime, immediately, eventually, concurrently, simultaneously.

8. Space
At the left, at the right, in the center, on the side, along the edge, on top, below, beneath, under, around, above, over, straight ahead, at the top, at the bottom, surrounding, opposite, at the rear, at the front, in front of, beside, behind, next to, nearby, in the distance, beyond, in the forefront, in the foreground, within sight, out of sight, across, under, nearer, adjacent, in the background.
Concession
Although, at any rate, at least, still, thought, even though, granted that, while it may be true, in spite of, of course.
Similarity or Comparison
Similarly, likewise, in like fashion, in like manner, analogous to.
Emphasis
Above all, indeed, truly, of course, certainly, surely, in fact, really, in truth, again, besides, also, furthermore, in addition.
Details
Specifically, especially, in particular, to explain, to list, to enumerate, in detail, namely, including.

9. Examples
For example, for instance, to illustrate, thus, in other words, as an illustration, in particular.
Consequence or Result
So that, with the result that, thus, consequently, hence, accordingly, for this reason, therefore, so, because, since, due to, as a result, in other words, then.
Summary
Therefore, finally, consequently, thus, in short, in conclusion, in brief, as a result, accordingly.
Suggestion
For this purpose, to this end, with this in mind, with this purpose in mind, therefore

10. Chapter 17: THE PLURAL OF NOUNS

11. Most nouns form the plural by adding -s or -es.
Singular
Plural
boat
boats
hat
hats
house
houses
river
rivers

12. A noun ending in -y preceded by a consonant makes the plural with -ies.
Singular
Plural
a cry
cries
a fly
flies
a nappy
nappies
a poppy
poppies
a city
cities
a lady
ladies
a baby
babies

13. There are some irregular formations for noun plurals
There are some irregular formations for noun plurals. Some of the most common ones are listed below.
Singular
Plural
woman
women
man
men
child
children
tooth
teeth
foot
feet
person
people
leaf
leaves
half
halves
knife
knives
wife
wives
life
lives
loaf
loaves
potato
potatoes

14. cactus
cacti
focus
foci
fungus
fungi
nucleus
nuclei
syllabus
syllabi/syllabuses
analysis
analyses
diagnosis
diagnoses
oasis
oases
thesis
theses
crisis
crises
phenomenon
phenomena
criterion
criteria
datum
data

15. Some nouns have the same form in the singular and the plural.
sheep
fish
species
aircraft

16. Some nouns have a plural form but take a singular verb.
Examples:
news The news is on at 6.30 p.m. athletics Athletics is good for young people. linguistics Linguistics is the study of language. darts Darts is a popular game in England. billiards Billiards is played all over the world.
Some nouns have a plural form and take a plural verb.
trousers My trousers are too tight. jeans Her jeans are black. glasses Those glasses are his.
others include:
savings, thanks, steps, stair, customs, congratulations, tropics, wages, spectacles, outskirts, goods, wits

17. Chapter 18: Be going to + Infinitive

18. In English the Future Time is expressed in a number of ways
In English the Future Time is expressed in a number of ways. The most common are with will and be going to. See examples from the following sentences.
I will finish my homework in an hour.
I'm going to finish my homework in an hour.
With be going to, make sure the verb be agrees with itssubject.
I'm going to eat a whole watermelon.
She's going to eat a whole watermelon.
Actually, we're going to eat a whole watermelon together.

19. In speech, the words going to are often pronounced ? gonna .?
Don't forget the be verb.
A: What are you gonna do this weekend?
B: I'm gonna stay home and clean my carpet.
NOT: I gonna stay?
NOT: I'm gonna to stay?

20. What's the difference between will and be going to?
Both can be used interchangeably in some cases. (Predictions and guesses)
My prints will be here tomorrow.
My prints are going to be here tomorrow.
Be going to is preferable for strong intentions or for describing the inevitable.
I'm going to give her a piece of my mind.
There's no way they can score 21 points in 2 minutes. We're going to win!

21. Will is the preferable form for making offers or expressing pop decisions.
A: Who will help me finish this chocolate cake?
B: I will.
A: I have two tickets left for the front row.
B: I'll take them.

22. Sometimes future time can be expressed with either the present or present progressive tense. In such cases, time words must be expressed or clearly implied.
I fly to Beijing tomorrow.
I'm flying to Beijing tomorrow.
Sorry I can't attend the picnic on Saturday. I'm flying to Beijing .

23. Chapter 19: Gerund
Gerunds are defined as the -ing form of a verb. They have several functions.
1. Used as subjects and complements
Skiing is my favorite sport.
Hiking can be very strenuous.
Seeing is believing
2. Used as objects following prepositions and prepositional expressions
Thanks for tending my children.
The job consists of typing, filing, and answering the phone.
3. Used as objects following certain verbs*.
The children enjoyed watching the parade.
Ms. Terrell avoided paying her taxes until it was too late.

24. Gerunds can sometimes take objects of their own:
Roland is afraid of making mistakes.
Sandy is considering leaving New York.

25. admit begin discuss hate love practice regret stop
avoid deny
advise can't help dislike hesitate mention prefer remember suggest
go like postpone
anticipate complete enjoy imagine mind quit resent threaten
recommend start understand
appreciate consider finish intend miss recall resist tolerate
attempt delay forget keep neglect recollect risk try

26. *The verb stop is followed by either a gerund or an infinitive, depending on meaning.
I stopped smoking (meaning “I no longer smoke”)
He stopped to light his pipe (meaning”He stopped doing something else in order to light his pipe”)
**Notice that the verb phrase, can’t help (eaning “can’t prevent” or can’t stop”) is used with gerund.
His jokes are so funny that I can’t help laughing at them
I couldn’t help overhearing your comment
***The verb go is followed by the –ing form of many “activity verbs”: go shopping, go dancing, go skiing, go bowling and others

27. Chapter 21: Modals
Modal auxiliary verbs are used to moderate the main verb, that is to enhance or restrict the verb to a certain context.
The most common modal auxiliaries in English are:
Can could may might should will would must

28. Notice the usage of modals in the following sentences:
I pay my taxes.
General declaration of fact. Paying taxes is something I normally do.

29. I can pay my taxes.
Expresses ability. I have the means (funds) to pay.
I might pay my taxes.
Expresses possibility, but not certainty. Maybe I will pay; maybe I won't.
I will pay my taxes.
Expresses future intent. I resolve to do it at some later time.
I should pay my taxes.
Expresses mild obligation. It is required, and I expect to comply.
I could pay my taxes.
Expresses possibility. If I have nothing else to do with the money, I might pay taxes.
I would pay my taxes.
(In this case), expresses reservation. If I had the money (but I don't). . .
I must pay my taxes.
Expresses strong obligation.
I am required and have to comply.

30. Modals are followed by only the base form of the verb and are not used alone unless there is a clear connection to a main verb.
He must to finish his homework. (I)
He must finish his homework. (C)
Jack could heard the bell. (I)
Jack could hear the bell. (C)
Penny will going to the movie. (I)
Penny will go to the movie. (C)

31. Chapter 22: Conditional Sentences
TYPE 1 CONDITIONAL
1. Form In a Type 1 conditional sentence, the tense in the 'if clause is the simple present, and the tense in the main clause is the simple future
'IF' CLAUSE (CONDITION)
MAIN CLAUSE (RESULT)
If + simple present If it rains If you don't hurry
Simple future you will get wet we will miss the train.

32. 2. Function In these sentences, the time is the present or future and the situation is real. They refer to a possible condition and its probable result. They are based on facts, and they are used to make statements about the real world, and about particular situations. We often use such sentences to give warnings:
If you don't leave, I'll call the police.
If you don't drop the gun, I'll shoot!
Examples:
If you drop that glass, it will break.
Nobody will notice if you make a mistake.
If I have time, I'll finish that letter.
What will you do if you miss the plane?

33. NOTE: We can use modals to express the degree of certainty of the result:
If you drop that glass, it might break.
I may finish that letter if I have time.

34. . TYPE 2 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES 1. Form
In a Type 2 conditional sentence, the tense in the 'if' clause is the simple past, and the tense in the main clause is the present conditional:
'IF' CLAUSE
MAIN CLAUSE
If + simple past If it rained If you went to bed earlier
Present conditional you would get wet you wouldn't be so tired

35. Present conditional, form
The present conditional of any verb is composed of two parts - the modal auxiliary would + the infinitive of the main verb (without 'to'.)
Subject
would
infinitive without to
She
learn

36. Affirmative I would go Negative wouldn't ask Interrogative Would she
come?
Interrogative negative
Wouldn't
they
accept?

37. In spoken English, would is contracted to 'd.
I'd
We'd
you'd
he'd, she'd
they'd

38. The negative contraction = wouldn't.
Example: to accept, Present conditional
Affirmative
Negative
Interrogative
I would accept
I wouldn't accept
Would I accept?
You would accept
You wouldn't accept
Would you accept?
He would accept
She wouldn't accept
Would he accept?
We would accept
We wouldn't accept
Would we accept?
They would accept
They wouldn't accept
Would they accept?

39. 2. Function
In these sentences, the time is now or any time, and the situation is unreal. They are not based on fact, and they refer to an unlikely or hypothetical condition and its probable result. The use of the past tense after 'if' indicates unreality. We can nearly always add a phrase starting with "but", that expresses the real situation:
If the weather wasn't so bad, we would go to the park (...but it is bad, so we can't go)
If I was the Queen of England, I would give everyone £100. (...but I'm not, so I won't)

40. Examples of use:
1. To make a statement about something that is not real at present, but is possible:
I would visit her if I had time. (= I haven't got time but I might have some time)
2. To make a statement about a situation that is not real now and never could be real:
If I were you, I'd give up smoking (but I could never be you)
Examples:
a. If I was a plant, I would love the rain. b. If you really loved me, you would buy me a diamond ring. c. If I knew where she lived, I would go and see her. d. You wouldn't need to read this if you understood English grammar. e. Would he go to the concert if I gave him a ticket? f. They wouldn't invite her if they didn't like her g. We would be able to buy a larger house if we had more money
NOTE: It is correct, and very common, to say "If I were" instead of "If I was".

41. Chapter 23: Past Tense Explanation
1. The simple past tense is expressed with the past form of the verb and nothing else.
My grandfather died last year. (C) My grandfather was died last year. (I) My grandfather has died last year. (I)
2. The simple past tense refers to
a. action which occurred at a specific time in the past b. completed action c. past status

42. Examples Specific past action
I ate lunch at noon today. He drove to work yesterday.
Completed action
She finally mailed the letter. Jan finished her report on time.
Past status
John was still single in Jane was a movie star.

43. Common problems with the past tense
1. Using the present tense when the past tense is required.
Last week, Tonya fix her neighbor's car. (I) Last week, Tonya fixed her neighbor's car. (C)
2. Using "was" with verbs in the past tense.
It was happened one night in September. (I) It happened one night in September.(C)

44. Correct the mistakes in the following sentences:
1. Last night, Samantha have pizza for supper.
2. My pet lizard was died last month.
3. Yesterday I spend two hours cleaning my living room.
4. This morning before coming to class, Jack eats two bowls of cereal.
5. What was happened to your leg?

45. Chapter 24: Making Predictions
In English the Future Expression can also used to make some predictions
Form
S + will + V1
S + will + be + Present Participle
S + will + have + V3

46. I will finish my homework in an hour.
My prints will be here tomorrow.
In the future people will have bigger heads.
I think she will be coming late to the class
He will not be attending the seminar
Mr. Andi will have taken his salary
My mother will have prepared the meal.