1. Issues for Carbon dioxide Storage in India
Save
Planet Earth
from
CO bombardment 2
Dr. B. Kumar
Project Adviser/Consultant
Carbon Sequestration
National Geophysical Research Institute, India
Hyderabad , India
Ph (Off.), (Mob.)
Fax:

2. What is CO2 storage ?
CO2 storage/Carbon Sequestration is the placement of CO2 into a depository in such a way that it remains safely stored and not released to the atmosphere. The viable options are storage of CO2 into underground geological formations, oceans, terrestrial ecosystems and bio - sequestration.

3. Issues for CO2 Storage in India
R&D Technologies
Geology & Tectonics
Protocols, Mechanisms & Forums
- Kyoto Protocol; Clean development Mechanism (CDM); Carbon sequestration Leadership Forum (CSLF); UN Framework Convention Treaty on Climate Changes (UNFCC), Asia Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate (AP6) etc.
- India has signed the Kyoto Protocol in 2003 but is not obliged to reduce the emission by 2012 as the per capita emission is very low (~1 metric ton /year). India is a member of CSLF, CDM, AP6 and also stands by UNFCC.
Safety & Environment
Economics
- The current cost estimates range from 20 to 80 US$/tCO2 for capturing the CO2 and 5 to 20 US$/tCO2 for transportation and storage

4. Ice cores indicate that in the past 420,000 years, the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere has ranged from 180 to 280 parts per million by volume (ppmv). The current CO2 atmospheric concentration is ~375 ppmv; this dramatic increase is primarily the result of human combustion of fossil fuels (Modified after Falkowski and others, 2000).

5. Projected Temperatures for the 21st Century Are Significantly Higher Than at Any Time During the Last 1000 Years

6. Carbon dioxide emissions – 2002
Description : Carbon dioxide emissions: Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions stemming stemming out from the burning of fossil fuels, gas flaring and the production of production of cement
Source : UN Common Database (CDIAC)
Category : Environment
Year : 2002
Units : Giga Metric Tons
5. 8
1.2

7. INDIA Carbon dioxide emissions per capita
Description : Carbon dioxide emissions per capita Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions stemming from the burning of fossil fuels, gas flaring and the production of cement.
Source : UN Common Database (CDIAC)
Category : Environment Ranking : 54 (2002)
Unit of measurement: Metric tons per capita
India has signed and ratified the Kyoto Protocol in
2003 but is not obliged to cut emissions up to 2012.
India is also a member of CSLF,CDM, AP6 & stands
by UNFCC.
(Tons CO2 per
person)
INDIA

8. Physical and geochemical processes that enhance storage security
Geological Storage
Deep underground formations
Depleted oil and gas reservoirs
Coal beds
Deep Saline formations
Industrially generated CO2 is pumped into
deep under ground formations and
dissolves in the native formation fluids.
Some of the dissolved CO2 would
chemically react and become part of
solid mineral/ coal matrix. Once
dissolved or reacted to form
minerals, CO2 is no longer buoyant and
would not rise to the ground surface.
Physical and geochemical processes
that enhance storage security

9. CO2 Trapping Mechanisms
I Hydrodynamic Trapping
Closed Stratigraphic Trapping
II Geochemical
Solubility Traps
Ionic Traps
Mineral Traps
Solubility Trapping
CO2 (gaseous) + H2O
Ionic Trapping
H2CO3 (aqueous) + OH
HCO3 (aqueous) + OH
Mineral Trapping
CO3 (aqueous) + Ca++
H2CO3 (aqueous)
HCO3 (aqueous)
H2CO3 (aqueous)
CaCO3 (solid)

10. Storage Security Mechanisms and Changes Over Time
When the CO2 is injected, it forms a bubble
around the injection well, displacing the mobile
water laterally and vertically within the injection
horizon.
The interactions between the water and CO2
phase allow geochemical trapping mechanisms
to take effect.
Over time, CO2 that is not immobilized by
residual CO2 trapping can react with in situ fluid
to form carbonic acid i.e., H2CO3 called solubility
trapping that dominates from tens to hundreds
of years.
Dissolved CO2 can eventually react with
reservoir minerals if an appropriate mineralogy
is encountered to form carbon-bearing ionic
species i.e., HCO3– and CO32– called ionic
trapping which dominates from hundreds to
thousands of years.
Further breakdown of these minerals could
precipitate new carbonate minerals that would
fix injected CO2 in its most secure state i.e.,
mineral trapping which dominates over
thousands to millions of years.
Storage expressed as a combination of physical and geochemical
trapping. The level of security is proportional to distance from
the origin. Dashed lines are examples of million-year pathways
Source: IPCC Report

11. Potential CO2 storage reservoirs
CO2 Stored in Geological Formations
POWER PLANT
CO2
Potential CO2 storage reservoirs

12. CO2 sequestration in depleted oil/gas reservoirs can enhance production of oil/gas.
Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) can be either miscible or immiscible depending primarily on the pressure of the injection gas into the reservoir.
Miscible phase: CO2-EOR, the CO2 mixes with the crude oil causing it to swell and reduce its viscosity, whilst also increasing or maintaining reservoir pressure. The combination of these processes enables more of the crude oil in the reservoir to flow freely to the production wells from which it can be recovered.
Immiscible phase: CO2-EOR, the CO2 is used to re-pressure the reservoir and as a sweep gas, to move the oil towards the production well.
CO2 enhanced oil recovery

13. In India, the Oil & Natural Gas Corp
In India, the Oil & Natural Gas Corp. (ONGC) has proposed CO2-EOR for Ankleshwar Oil Field in Western India.
The CO2 is planned to be 600,000m3/d and is sourced from ONGC gas processing complex at Hazira.
The experimental and modeling studies have indicated an incremental oil recovery of ~ 4 % over the project life of 35 years besides the potential to sequester 5 to 10 million tons of CO2
CO2 Pipeline from
Hazira Plant
First row of oil Producer.
To be closed after reaching
GOR of 500 v/v
Second row of oil Producer. To be continued on production till GOR reaches 500 v/v
CO2 moves through formation mobilizing residual oil by swelling, vaporization and reduction in residual oil saturation
Ankleshwar Sands S3+4 : MMt
Waterflood Recovery : 54%
Envisaged Tertiary Recovery : 5-7%
CO2 Injector
After, Suresh Kumar, Abstract, IWCCS-07

14. Weyburn–Midale CO2 Monitoring and Storage Project, Canada
It is one amongst the largest ongoing projects for CCS in the world.
The Encana Cooperation has been injecting 5,000 tonnes of CO2 per day into in the Weyburn oil field for the dual purpose of enhancing oil recovery and the CO2 storage while increasing the field’s production by an additional 10,000 barrels per day.
About 30 million tones of CO2 will be injected and permanently stored over the life of project producing at least million barrels of incremental recovered oil.
Injection of CO2 in the Oil Producing Formations of the Weyburn Field
After, EERC, North Dakota.

15. Enhanced Coalbed Methane Recovery (ECBM)
Coal beds typically contain large amounts of methane rich gas that is
adsorbed onto the surface of the coal. The injected CO2 efficiently
displaces methane as it has greater affinity to the coal than methane.
CO2 enhanced
coal bed methane
production

16. Density of CO2 and CH4 as a function of pressure for various
Temperatures based on data from Vargaftik et al. (1996).

17. The Coal Bed Methane Potential of India : ~ 1000 bcm
DGH, Annual Report,

18. CO2 Storage in Deep Saline Aquifers
Saline aquifers at depths of ≥ 800 m provide a suitable alternative for the
storage of CO2.
The high porosity and permeability of the aquifer sands along with low porosity
cap rocks such as shales provide favorable conditions for CO2 storage.
The CO2 can be stored in the miscible and/or mineral phase.
With time, CO2 gets dissolved in the brines and reacts with the pore
fluids/minerals to form geologically stable carbonates.
Studies in India
The Department of Science & Technology , India has initiated studies aiming at identification of deep underground saline aquifers and their suitability for CO2 sequestration in Sedimentary basins of India namely Ganga, Rajasthan and Vindhyan basins.
The Central Ground Water Board and Geological Survey of India have established the presence of saline aquifers up to depths of ≥ 300m below ground level in the Ganga basin.
Deep Resistivity studies carried out at 9 sites around New Delhi have shown the presence of saline aquifers at depths of 800m and beyond, around Palwal and Tumsara.
ICOSAR Bulletin, Vol. 2

19. Storage of CO2 in Saline Aquifer (Sleipner Project)
Utsira Aquifer is located 800 m below
the bed in the North Sea.
~I million tonnes of CO2 injected per
year since 1996
CO2 separated from Natural Gas
produced from Sleipner West is injected
in the Utsira aquifer
Characteristics of the Utsira Sand
Mio-Pliocene age.
High porosity sand (21-37%) capped
with low porosity shale.
Estimated to be capable of storing
600,000 MT of CO2 .
Seismic reflection data
prior to sequestration
After 2 million tonnes of
CO2 injection, showing
amplitudes of high reflection
corresponding to CO2
saturated rocks.

20. CO2 sequestration in Onshore Hunton Aquifer
Devonian-Silurian carbonates of the “Hunton Aquifer” contain a number of highly porous intervals.
Favorable sequestration attributes of the Hunton
aquifer include; relatively high porosity (up to 15%), permeability, lateral continuity over a multistate area, thickness (up to 2000+feet) and confinement of the aquifer intervals between two aquitard intervals.
Estimated CO2 sequestration volumes range up to 42 billion tons (726 trillion cubic feet).
Stratigraphy of Hunton Aquifer
After MIDCARB Project

21. Evaluation of Basalt Formations of India for environmentally safe and
‘Geological CO2 Sequestration in Basalt Formations
of India: A Pilot Study’
Objective
Evaluation of Basalt Formations of
India for environmentally safe and
irreversible long time storage of CO2.

22. Why Basalts are attractive proposition for CO2 sequestration ?
Deccan Basalts cover an area of 500x103 sq.
km. and form one of the largest flood
eruptions in the world.
Composed of typically 48 flows.
The thickness of basalts varies from few
hundreds of meters to > 1.5 km.
Basalts provide solid cap rocks and thus
high level of integrity for CO2 storage.
Basalts react with CO2 and convert the
CO2 into the mineral carbonates that
means high level of security.
Intertrappeans between basalt flows provide
major porosity and permeability along with
vescicular, brecciated zones with in the flows.
Tectonically the traps are considered
to be stable.
Geophysical studies have revealed presence
of thick Mesozoic and Gondwana sediments
below the Deccan Traps.

23. Deccan basalts vs Columbia River basalts
The most common flow type of the Deccan Trap and Columbia
River Basalt is the Pahoeho sheet flows. Due to the lesser
viscosity and less strain it forms large horizontal sheets.
Both Deccan Flood Basalts and Columbia River Basalts are
tholeiitic (cinopyroxene and plagioclase) in nature and the
eruptions are of fissure type.
Both are continental basalts. Columbia River
Basalt is fully continental and Deccan Traps
are partly continental.
Both the basaltic flows have traveled
as much as 300 to 500 km from their
sources.
Chemical composition of both the
basalts are similar .

24. Major Flood Basalt Provinces
Name
Volume
Age
Locality
CRB
(1.7x10 5 km 3 )
Miocene
NW US
Keeweenawan
(4x10 5 km 3 )
Precambrian
Superior area
Deccan
(10 6 km 3 )
Cret.-Eocene
India
Parana
(area > 10 6 km 2 )
early Cret.
Brazil
Karroo
(2x10 6 km 3 ?)
early Jurassic
S. Africa

25. CO2 Storage in Basalt Formations
CO2 is injected in basalt formations above its critical temperature and pressure
Minimum depth
800 m
Supercritical CO2
Physico – chemical properties
between those of liquid and gas.
Dense gas
Solubility approaching liquid phase
Diffusivity approaching gas phase
Hydrodynamic
Trapping
Solubility
Trapping
Mineralisation

26. Variation of CO2 density with depth, (based on the density data of Angus et al., 1973).
Carbon dioxide density increases rapidly at approximately 800 m depth, when the CO2 reaches a supercritical state.
Cubes represent the relative volume occupied by the CO2, and down to 800 m, this volume can be seen to dramatically
decrease with depth. At depths below 1.5 km, the density and specific volume become nearly constant.

27. Mineralization reactions in basalt formations
CO2(g) CO2(aq)
CO2(aq) + H2O HCO3- + H+
(Ca,Mg,Fe)x SiyOx+2y +2xH+ +(2y-x)H2O x(Ca,Mg,Fe)2+ + yH4SiO4(aq)
(Ca,Mg,Fe)2+ + HCO (Ca,Mg,Fe)CO3 + H+
Induction Time for Calcite Precipitation
Depth, (m)
T, °C
tp, d
800 35
964
900 38
822
1000 42
678
1100 48
534
1200 56
397
1300 67
275
Lab. scale &
geo-chemical
modeling studies by
PNNL, USA
Calcite deposition on
basalt
Basalt is rich in Ca, Mg & Fe Silicates
Mineralisation reaction rate is fast on geological time scale
Mineralisation is appeared to be controlled by mixing
behaviour of CO2 and not by kinetics of the reactions

28. Methodology Site identification Planning of Schedule
Evaluation of available geological, geophysical
and tectonic data to identify one or two areas in
basalt formations of Western India with basalt
thickness of 800 m.
Adsorbed soil gas surveys
Magnetotelluric studies
Drill location analysis
Identification of most suitable site, land acquisition
and permission
Planning of Schedule
For borehole drilling
and CO2 injection
Detailed engineering planning for borehole drilling,
piping and cementing
Identification of vendors for drilling, casing,
cementing of borehole, supply and injection of CO2
Theoretical simulation and modeling
Pre-characterization of shallow surface soils and
ground waters by geochemical & isotopic studies.
High-resolution seismic studies

29. Borehole drilling and injection of CO2
Drilling of 8-10’’ dia. borehole up to depth of 800  50 m
Borehole logging
Core sampling
Lining and cementing of borehole
Pre-injection modeling
Injection of ~ 100 tons of CO2 per day at a pressure
of 2000 psi for 10 days along with tracers
Borehole drilling
and
injection of CO2
Drilling of 2’’ dia observation boreholes
Post injection characterization of soil and
ground water
Monitoring, modeling and verification of
mineralization
Document basalt formations of India as a
geological sequestration option.
Post injection
characterization,
monitoring & modeling

31. Significance
The Indian study will globally establish basalt
formation as potential storage for CO2 by leveraging
study carried out in Columbia River basalt group
under US-Dept. of Environment.

32. CO2Sequestration in Methane Hydrates
Methane Hydrates are class of solids in which methane
molecules occupy cages made up of hydrogen- bonded
water molecules.
CO2 can also be stored as hydrates with simultaneous
conversion of in situ methane hydrates into natural gas.
At temperatures below 10°C, there is a pressure range in
which methane hydrate is unstable while CO2 hydrate is
stable.
The heat released from the formation of CO2 gas hydrate
is greater than that needed for CH4 hydrate dissociation:
CH4(H2O)n  CH4 + nH2O; Hf = KJ/mole
CO2(H2O)n  CO2 + nH2O ; Hf = KJ/mole
where n is the hydration number for CH4 hydrate and CO2
hydrate
n is dependent on pressure, temperature and the
composition of the gas in the gas phase which implies
that under certain pressure and temperature conditions,
the replacement of CH4 in the hydrate with CO2 is
thermodynamically possible.
After Gas Technology Institute, USA

33. Ocean Sequestration
CO2 is soluble in ocean water, and oceans absorb and
emit huge amounts of CO2 into the atmosphere through
natural processes. Ocean Sequestration has huge potential
as a carbon storage sink, however, enough R&D have to be
carried out to understand about the physio-chemical processes
which occur between seawater and pumped CO2.
Storage of CO2 in deep oceans has been suggested as a means of reducing inputs of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere.

34. Terrestrial Sequestration
Terrestrial carbon sequestration is defined as either the net removal
of CO2 from the atmosphere or the prevention of CO2 net emissions from
the terrestrial ecosystems into the atmosphere. The following ecosystems
offer significant opportunity for carbon sequestration:
Forest lands
Agricultural lands
Biomass croplands
Deserts and degraded lands
Wetlands and peat lands
-- Storage of C in soils and plants has the potential to offset CO2 emissions
to the atmosphere in the coming decades while new ‘clean’ energy
production and CO2 sequestration technologies are developed and
deployed.
What is needed is basic research to improve our fundamental
understanding of natural phenomena controlling soil C sequestration and
basic and applied R&D to bring new management and technology to
the challenge.

35. Bio-sequestration : The solar energy is collected using Fresnel
lens devices/parabolic concentrator
and a fibre optic light delivery system is
used to stimulate biological organisms like
cyanobacteria or micro-algae in a
bio-generator to produce useful by-products
from carbon dioxide.
For uniform growth of the organisms, the
distribution of photosynthetic photon flux
light in the wavelength range of 400–700
nm needs to be delivered to the bioreactor.
The photo-bioreactor system makes use of
the natural process ‘photosynthesis’
to convert light, heat and carbon dioxide to
useful products, such as carbohydrates,
hydrogen and oxygen.
6CO2 (aq) + 6H2O(l)+ light + heat 
C6H12O6(aq) +6O2(g)
Assuming that the carbon uptake rate of 1.5
g/day for the particular micro-organism,
Synechocystis aquatilis, up to 2.2 ktonne
C/year could be sequestered from the
environment.
Bio-sequestration :
The concept of photosynthetic conversion
to fix carbon dioxide using bacteria or
micro-algae under a controlled environment.
Conceptual diagram of Photosynthetic
conversion of carbon dioxide to biomass.
(After Energy Conv. and Manag.46 (2005) 403–420)

36. Breakthrough Technologies
Biomimetic Sequestration
- It implies the use of a particular aspect of biological process for resolving a specific non biological problem. The Carbonic Anhydrase (CA) is used as a catalyst for the conversion of CO2 into bicarbonates and later to carbonates or amino acids.
Iron Fertilization
Iron Fertilization implies the introduction of iron to the upper ocean to increase productivity of marine food chain which in turn increases CO2 sequestration from the atmosphere into the oceans. Marine plankton growth is enhanced by physically distributing the iron particles in other wise nutrient rich but iron deficient ocean water using suitable delivering systems based on biomaterials.
Soil Productivity ?

37. Conclusions
- CO2 storage R&D is still in early stage in India and developing cost effective technologies for CCS are the major challenges to the scientist and researchers.
The environmental risks involved in the storage of CO2 particularly in geological formations and oceans have to be evaluated in detail by monitoring and modeling in terms of long term stability.
Funding mechanisms to support R&D projects for CCS have to be evaluated. 0.5% cess on power generation in the line of oil cess may be good enough to sustain the same. The cess can be operated by Energy Security Development Board, under the aegis of Ministry of Power.
‘If every country was to spend just 2-3% of their GDP,
the impact of possible global climate change could be
mitigated’
- R.K.Pachauri, Economic Times Corp. Excellence Award
for , New Delhi (29th Oct., 2007)

38. International Partners
FRANCE: Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris
INDIA: National Geophysical Research Institute
RUSSIA: Vernadsky Institute of Geochemistry and
Analytical Chemistry of the Russian Academy
of Sciences
CANADA: BioCap Canada
Semiarid Prairie Agricultural Research Centre
NETHERLANDS: Wageningen Universiteit, Lab of Soil Science
and Geology
NORWAY: Det Kongelige Olge - Og Energidepartement
Institute for Energy Technology
Norwegian University of Science & Technology
Research Council of Norway, Hanshaugen
SINTEF Petroleum Research

39. Recommendations Develop collaborative project
Recommendations
Develop collaborative project
on geological sequestration of CO2
with US laboratories.
Set up centers of excellence
and carbon capture.
Organize IInd Workshop on
Carbon Sequestration during
January 2007.

40. Recommendations
Carbon capture and storage research offers an opportunity
to mitigate global concerns about climate change and
sustainable future
Suggested expansion of support to research and CO2
infrastructure from DST and other concerned sectors of
economy, under the National Programme on CO2
Sequestration Research
Establish Centre for Advanced Studies in India for CCS
technology to lead R&D projects on Carbon Capture,
Geological Sequestration of CO2, Monitoring, Modeling &
Simulation studies and Clean Energy Development
Organize a special session on India’s initiatives on Carbon
Capture and Storage R & D during 2008 at an international
event.
Give more thrust to basalt pilot study using sub-basalt
imaging techniques and establish baseline for
concentration of CO2 in atmosphere and soil and
dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) in shallow aquifer.
Facilitate inter and intra-networking between national and
international projects on CCS technology.
Indian CO2 Sequestration Applied Research Network to
have institutional members and hold periodic meetings to
develop an activity profile and framework for support.
Develop new knowledge partners with multi-disciplinary
and multi-stage collaborations for sustainable energy
future.

41. Thank You