1. AP PSYCHOLOGY: UNIT VI Introductory Psychology: Memory

2. Introduction: Fact or Falsehood? Memory storage is never automatic; it always takes effort  False When people go around a circle saying their names, their poorest memories are for what was said by the person directly in front of them  True

3. Introduction: Fact or Falsehood? Memory aids (for example, those that use imagery and devices for organization) are no more useful than simple rehearsal of information  False Only a few people have any type of photographic memory  False

4. Introduction: Fact or Falsehood? Although our capacity for storing information is large, we are still limited in the number of permanent memories we can form  False When people learn something while intoxicated, they recall it best when intoxicated  True

5. Introduction: Fact or Falsehood? The hour before sleep is a good time to commit information to memory  True The confidence of eyewitnesses is an important predictor of their accuracy  False

6. PART ONE Memory: The Basics

7. Nickerson & Adams’ Penny Test (1979)

8. Memory: The Basics Memory  An active system that receives information from the senses, puts it into a usable form, organizes it while storing it away, and then retrieves it from storage  Any indication that learning has persisted over time The mind’s storehouse with all accumulated learning

9. Memory: The Basics Three big questions…  How does information get into memory?  How is information maintained in memory?  How is information pulled back out of memory?

10. Memory: The Basics Entering data through a keyboard Saving data to a flash drive Displaying data on a monitor

11. PART TWO Memory: Encoding “Get that info in there..!”

12. Memory: Encoding Encoding  The set of mental operations performed on sensory information to convert it into a form that is usable in the brain’s storage systems  Types of Encoding Automatic Processing Unconscious processing of incidental information Space, time, frequency and well-learned information Example: Flashbulb Memories Effortful Processing Conscious processing that requires attention and effort Example: Rehearsal

13. Memory: Encoding Memory Effects  Next-in-Line-Effect  When we are next in line, we focus on our own performance & often fail to process the last person’s words  Spacing Effect  We retain information better when we rehearse over time  Serial Position Effect  Our tendency to recall best the last and first terms in a list

14. Levels of Processing

15. Memory: Encoding Visual/Structural Encoding  The encoding of images  Emphasizes the physical structure of the stimulus  Level of Processing  SHALLOW  Example  Extravagant “Is the word written in capital letters?”  Boy “How many letters are in this word?”

16. Memory: Encoding Acoustic/Phonemic Encoding  The encoding of sound  Emphasizes what a word sounds like  Level of Processing  INTERMEDIATE  Example  Bait “Does the word rhyme with weight?”

17. Memory: Encoding Semantic Encoding  The encoding of meaning  Emphasizes the meaning of verbal input  Level of Processing  DEEP  Example  Bobcat Would the word fit in the sentence: “He met a ______ on the street?”

18. Craik & Lockhart (1972)

19. Encoding Enrichment

20. Memory: Encoding Elaboration  Linking a stimulus to other information at the time of encoding  Helps to enhance semantic encoding  Example You read that phobias are often caused by classical conditioning You apply this idea to your own fear of spiders  Self-Referent Encoding  People’s recall of information tends to be slanted in favor of material that is relevant to them

21. Memory: Encoding Visual Imagery  The creation of visual images to represent words; can be used to enrich encoding  Facilities memory by providing a second kind of code  Dual-Coding Theory (Paivio, 1986)  Memory is enhanced by forming semantic and visual codes, since either can lead to recall Concrete v. abstract words High-high (juggler-dress) High-low (letter-effort) Low-high (duty-hotel) Low-low (quality-necessity)

22. Memory: Encoding Mnemonics  Memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices  Two helpful mnemonic methods Method of Loci Matching items with an imagined location Link Method (“Peg-Word” Method) Memorize a ditty and then apply to topic “One is a bun, two is a shoe, three is a tree, four is a door, five is a hive, six is sticks, seven is heaven, eight is a gate, nine is a swine, ten is a hen”

23. Memory: Encoding Chunking  Organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically 1 – 7 – 7 – 6 – 1 – 4 – 9 – 2 – 1 – 8 – 1 – 2 – 1 – 9 – 4 – 1 Acronyms are another way of chunking information… HOMES PEMDAS ROYGBIV

24. Memory: Encoding Hierarchy  Complex information broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided into categories and subcategories  Increases the likelihood of recall and recognition Outline notes, concept maps, flow charts, etc.

25. PART THREE Memory: Storage “Keep that info in there..!”

26. Memory: Storage Atkinson & Shiffrin Model of Memory Storage (1971)  Three stores of memory are shown below

27. Memory: Storage Sensory Memory  Preserves information in its original sensory form for a brief time, usually only a fraction of a second  Iconic Memory Momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli Lasts no more than a half a second  Echoic Memory Momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli Lasts no more than 4 seconds

28. Memory: Storage Short-Term Memory (STM)  A limited-capacity store that can maintain unrehearsed information for about 10-20 seconds  Capacity (George Miller, 1956) 7±2 items Even less in more modern studies?  Without rehearsal, the average person retains only about 4 chunks in short-term memory FB-INB-CC-IAIB-M FBI-NBC-CIA-IBM  How to increase duration? Capacity?

29. Memory: Storage Long-Term Memory (LTM)  An unlimited capacity store that can hold information over lengthy periods of time  Though we have a huge capacity for storage, we don’t store most information with exactness

30. Memory: Storage Physical Location of Memories  Memory is NOT stored in a single spot  Synaptic Change  When learning occurs serotonin is released by the neurons of certain synapses  Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)  Synaptic enhancement after learning An increase in the release of neurotransmitter or receptors on the receiving neuron indicates the strengthening of synapses

31. Types of Memory

32. Memory: Storage Implicit Memory  Without conscious recall  Nondeclarative Memory  Actions, skills, conditioned responses & emotional responses  Also known as Procedural Memory Skill Memory Riding a bike, typing, tying one’s shoes Automatic Reactions Tensing up at the sound of a dentist’s drill

33. Memory: Storage Explicit Memory  Conscious recall  Declarative Memory  Recollection of words, definitions, names, dates, faces, events, concepts and ideas  Two types of Explicit Memories Semantic Memory General knowledge that is not tied to a specific time Episodic Memory Chronological, or temporarily dated, recollections of personal experiences

34. Representation & Organization

35. Memory: Storage How is knowledge represented and organized in memory?  Conceptual Hierarchies  Schemas  Semantic Networks  Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) Models

36. Brewer & Treyens (1981) Schema Demonstration

37. Memory: Storage Semantic Networks  Consists of nodes representing concepts, joined together by pathways that link related concepts  Less systematic than conceptual hierarchies and/or schemas

38. Memory: Storage Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) Model  Assumes that cognitive processes depend on patterns of activation in highly interconnected computational networks that resemble neural networks  Consists of large networks of interconnected nodes  Operate much like neurons (excitatory/inhibitory effects)  Asserts that specific memories correspond to particular patterns of activation in these networks

39. PART FOUR Memory: Retrieval “Get that info out of there..!”

40. Memory: Retrieval Measures of Memory  Recall  A measure of memory in which a person must retrieve/reproduce information in the absence of cues  Recognition  A measure of memory in which a person must identify items previously learned  Relearning  A measure of memory that assess the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time

41. Retrieval Cues

42. Memory: Retrieval Retrieval Cues  Stimuli that help gain access to stored memories; serve as anchor points  Mnemonic Devices  Priming  Context Cues  Déjà Vu

43. Memory: Retrieval Priming  The activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory  Often referred to as “memory-less memory”  Occurs without explicit remembering

44. Memory: Retrieval Context Effects  Involves placing yourself in the context where you initially experienced something  Helps to prime memory retrieval  May trigger déjà vu  Cues from the current situation that may subconsciously trigger the retrieval of a similar experience in one’s past

45. Mood & Memories

46. Memory: Retrieval State-Dependent Memory  What someone learns in particular state, is more easily recalled when he/she is again in that state  Someone who hides money while drunk may forget its location until drunk again

47. Memory: Retrieval Mood-Congruent Memory  We usually recall experiences that are consistent with our current mood  In a bad mood, one may interpret someone’s look as a glare  In a good mood, one may encode the same look as interest

48. PART FIVE Memory: Forgetting “Where’d that info go?”

49. Memory: Forgetting Forgetting  The inability to retrieve information due to poor encoding, storage or retrieval  The SEVEN SINS OF MEMORY Absent-mindedness Transience Blocking Misattribution Suggestibility Bias Persistence

50. Memory: Forgetting Encoding Failure  Obviously, we will not remember what we fail to encode  Without encoding, information never enters into one’s long-term memory EXAMPLE: Nickerson & Adams’ Penny Test NOTE: Age can impact encoding…

51. Memory: Forgetting Storage Decay  Poor durability of stored memories leads to their decay  Hermann Ebbinghaus (1885) The Forgetting Curve The course of forgetting is initially rapid, but levels off over time

52. Memory: Forgetting Retrieval Failure  Although the information is retained in the memory store, it cannot be accessed  You may lack the information needed to retrieve it Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

53. Memory: Forgetting Proactive Interference (Forward)  The disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information  As you collect more information, your mental “attic” becomes cluttered  Example You drop your phone in the toilet & have to get a new phone number Your memory of the old phone number interferes with the new one

54. Memory: Forgetting Retroactive Interference (Backward)  The disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information  Example You drop your phone in the toilet & have to get a new phone number Your new phone number interferes with your memory of the old one  Sleep prevents retroactive interference & leads to better recall

56. Memory: Forgetting Motivated Forgetting  The unknowing revision of memories  Freud proposed that our memory systems do indeed self- censor painful information  Repression A defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings and memories from consciousness  Memory researchers think repression, rarely, if ever, occurs

58. Let’s Review… Ellen can’t recall the provisions of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo because she was daydreaming when it was discussed in history class  Ineffective encoding (lack of attention) Rufus hates his job at Taco Haven & constantly forgets when he is scheduled to work  Retrieval failure (motivated forgetting)

59. Let’s Review… Ray’s new assistant is named Jason Timberlake. Ray keeps calling him Justin.  Proactive Interference Tania studied history on Sunday morning & sociology on Sunday evening. It’s Monday, and she’s struggling with her history test because she keeps confusing prominent historians with influential sociologists.  Retroactive Interference

60. Memory: Reconstruction PART SIX

61. Memory: Reconstruction Misconception  Memory is a mental videotape that can provide faithful reproductions of past events Reality  Countless studies in recent decades have demonstrated that memories are incomplete, distorted, fuzzy reconstructions of past events  The adjectives that best describe memory are not exact or accurate, but rather fragile, fallible and malleable

62. Memory: Reconstruction The Misinformation Effect  The incorporation of misleading information into one’s memory of an event  Eyewitnesses must reconstruct their memories when questioned about an event; rarely accurate  Loftus & Palmer (1974) The Automobile Accident Test Group A: Hit Group B: Smashed Weeks later…broken glass?  Impact of storytelling on memories?

63. Memory: Reconstruction Reality Monitoring  Refers to the process of deciding whether memories are based on external sources (one’s perceptions of actual events) or internal sources (one’s thoughts and imaginations)  Impact of sensory and/or contextual information? Did I take my medicine this morning? Did I lock my car door? Did I turn off the oven? Did I pack my umbrella?

64. Memory: Reconstruction Source Monitoring  Involves making attributions about the origins of memories  Did I read that in the NY Times or in Rolling Stone?  Did that come from Anchorman or I Love You, Man?  Source Monitoring Error (Source Amnesia)  When a memory derived from one source is misattributed to another source “I read that in my Psychology textbook!” (When you really heard it on Dr. Phil…) Songwriters?

65. Memory: Reconstruction Types of Amnesia  Retrograde Amnesia  Involves the loss of memories for events that occurred prior to the onset of amnesia  Anterograde Amnesia  Involves the loss of memories for events that occur after the onset of amnesia The Case of H.M. (Henry Molasion)