1. What is Psychology Chapter 1

2. Behavior and Mental Processes Psychology: the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. Psychology: the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. Behavior: any action that other people can observe or measure. Behavior: any action that other people can observe or measure. Walking, talking, sleeping, eating, drinking. Walking, talking, sleeping, eating, drinking. Includes automatic body functions. Includes automatic body functions. Cognitive Activities: mental processes. Cognitive Activities: mental processes.

3. The Goals of Psychology Observe and describe behavior and mental process to better understand them. Observe and describe behavior and mental process to better understand them. A better understanding allows them to explain, predict and control behavior. A better understanding allows them to explain, predict and control behavior.

4. Philosophical Developments Interactive Dualism– idea that mind and body were separate entities that interact to produce sensations, emotions and other experiences Interactive Dualism– idea that mind and body were separate entities that interact to produce sensations, emotions and other experiences Nature vs. Nurture: Nature vs. Nurture: Are abilities determined by genes or experiences? Are abilities determined by genes or experiences? What effect does it have on behavior? What effect does it have on behavior? Physiology: branch of biology that studies the functions and parts of the living organisms, including humans. Physiology: branch of biology that studies the functions and parts of the living organisms, including humans.

5. Foundations of Modern Psychology Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920) Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920) Leipzig, Germany Leipzig, Germany established first psychology research laboratory– used scientific method established first psychology research laboratory– used scientific method applied laboratory techniques to study of the mind applied laboratory techniques to study of the mind Edward Titchener (1867–1927) Wundt’s student, professor at Cornell University Edward Titchener (1867–1927) Wundt’s student, professor at Cornell University developed approach called structuralism—emphasized studying the most basic components, or structures, of conscious experiences developed approach called structuralism—emphasized studying the most basic components, or structures, of conscious experiences Objective sensations: sight and taste. Objective sensations: sight and taste. Subjective feelings: emotional responses and images. Subjective feelings: emotional responses and images. Introspection– subject would view a stimulus and then try to reconstruct their sensations and feelings after viewing Introspection– subject would view a stimulus and then try to reconstruct their sensations and feelings after viewing

6. William James 1842–1910 1842–1910 started psychology at Harvard in 1870s started psychology at Harvard in 1870s his ideas shaped school of functionalism – also influenced by Darwin to focus on how behaviors help us adapt to the environment his ideas shaped school of functionalism – also influenced by Darwin to focus on how behaviors help us adapt to the environment Experience is a continuous “stream of consciousness.” Experience is a continuous “stream of consciousness.” Adaptive behavior patterns are learned and maintained because they are successful. Adaptive behavior patterns are learned and maintained because they are successful. Studying leads to good grades. Studying leads to good grades. Successful actions are repeated and become habits. Successful actions are repeated and become habits.

7. Sigmund Freud 1856–1939 1856–1939 Founded the school of psychoanalysis Founded the school of psychoanalysis Focused on unconscious motives and internal conflicts. Focused on unconscious motives and internal conflicts. Freud primarily worked with patients directly not by testing things in a lab. Freud primarily worked with patients directly not by testing things in a lab. Really focused on unconscious activities primarily those that were sexual and aggressive in nature. Really focused on unconscious activities primarily those that were sexual and aggressive in nature. Psychodynamic: most of what exists in an individuals mind is unconscious and consists of conflicting impulses, urges, and wishes. Psychodynamic: most of what exists in an individuals mind is unconscious and consists of conflicting impulses, urges, and wishes. Human activity is a result of trying to fulfill these desires. Human activity is a result of trying to fulfill these desires.

8. Development of Behaviorism Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) Behaviorism grew out of his work with dogs associating a neutral stimulus with an automatic behavior Behaviorism grew out of his work with dogs associating a neutral stimulus with an automatic behavior John B. Watson (1878–1958) John B. Watson (1878–1958) psychologists should study overt behavior psychologists should study overt behavior More important to study behavior because it was testable and measurable. More important to study behavior because it was testable and measurable. B. F. Skinner (1904–1990) B. F. Skinner (1904–1990) American psychologist at Harvard American psychologist at Harvard studied learning and effect of reinforcement studied learning and effect of reinforcement behaviorism behaviorism

9. Humanistic Psychology Emphasizes each person’s unique potential for psychological growth and self-direction. Emphasizes each person’s unique potential for psychological growth and self-direction. Carl Rogers Carl Rogers Influenced by his experiences with his psychotherapy clients. Influenced by his experiences with his psychotherapy clients. Looked at the conscious experiences of his clients. Looked at the conscious experiences of his clients. Emphasized self-determination, free will and choice. Emphasized self-determination, free will and choice. Abraham Maslow Abraham Maslow Theory of motivation Theory of motivation

10. Biological Perspective Study the physiological mechanisms in the brain and nervous system that organize and control behavior Study the physiological mechanisms in the brain and nervous system that organize and control behavior Focus may be at various levels Focus may be at various levels individual neurons individual neurons areas of the brain areas of the brain specific functions like eating, emotion, or learning specific functions like eating, emotion, or learning Interest in behavior distinguishes biological psychology from many other biological sciences Interest in behavior distinguishes biological psychology from many other biological sciences

11. Psychodynamic Perspective View of behavior based on experience treating patients View of behavior based on experience treating patients Psychoanalytic approach (Sigmund Freud) Psychoanalytic approach (Sigmund Freud) both a method of treatment and a theory of the mind both a method of treatment and a theory of the mind behavior reflects combinations of conscious and unconscious influences behavior reflects combinations of conscious and unconscious influences drives and urges within the unconscious component of mind influence thought and behavior drives and urges within the unconscious component of mind influence thought and behavior early childhood experiences shape unconscious motivations early childhood experiences shape unconscious motivations

12. Behavioral Perspective View of behavior based on experience or learning View of behavior based on experience or learning Classical conditioning Classical conditioning Operant conditioning Operant conditioning

13. Humanistic Perspective Developed by Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers Developed by Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers behavior reflects innate ‘actualization’ behavior reflects innate ‘actualization’ focus on conscious forces and self perception focus on conscious forces and self perception more positive view of basic forces than Freud’s more positive view of basic forces than Freud’s

14. Positive Psychology Perspective Study of positive emotions and psychological states, positive individual traits, and the social institutions that foster positive individuals and communities. Study of positive emotions and psychological states, positive individual traits, and the social institutions that foster positive individuals and communities. Seeks to counterbalance psychology’s traditional focus on psychological disorders. Seeks to counterbalance psychology’s traditional focus on psychological disorders. Look to increase personal well being instead of focusing on alleviating the trouble symptoms. Look to increase personal well being instead of focusing on alleviating the trouble symptoms.

15. Cognitive Perspective How is knowledge acquired, organized, remembered, and used to guide behavior? How is knowledge acquired, organized, remembered, and used to guide behavior? Influences include: Influences include: Piaget – studied intellectual development Piaget – studied intellectual development Chomsky – studied language Chomsky – studied language Cybernetics – science of information processing Cybernetics – science of information processing

16. Cross-Cultural Perspective The study of cultural effects on behavior and mental processes. The study of cultural effects on behavior and mental processes. The study of psychological differences among people living in different cultural groups. The study of psychological differences among people living in different cultural groups. How are people’s thoughts, feelings and behavior influenced by their culture? How are people’s thoughts, feelings and behavior influenced by their culture? What are the common elements across culture? Are these innate? What are the common elements across culture? Are these innate?

17. Evolutionary Perspective Influenced by Darwin and the emphasis on innate, adaptive behavior patterns Influenced by Darwin and the emphasis on innate, adaptive behavior patterns Application of principles of evolution to explain behavior and psychological processes Application of principles of evolution to explain behavior and psychological processes

18. Areas of Psychology Biological Biological Clinical Clinical Cognitive Cognitive Counseling Counseling Educational Educational Experimental Experimental Developmental Developmental Forensic Forensic Health Health Industrial/organizati onal Industrial/organizati onal Personality Personality Rehabilitation Rehabilitation Social Social Sports Sports Psychiatry: Medical specialty area focused on the diagnosis, treatment, causes, and prevention of mental and behavioral disorders.

19. Clinical Psychologists vs. Psychiatrists Both trained in the diagnosis, treatment, causes, and prevention of psychological disorders Both trained in the diagnosis, treatment, causes, and prevention of psychological disorders Clinical psychologists receive doctorate (Ph.D. or Psy.D.) Clinical psychologists receive doctorate (Ph.D. or Psy.D.) Psychiatrists receive a medical degree (M.D. or D.O.) followed by years of specialized training in treatment of mental disorders Psychiatrists receive a medical degree (M.D. or D.O.) followed by years of specialized training in treatment of mental disorders

21. Scientific Method Goals of Psychology: Describe Describe Explain Explain Predict Predict Control Control...behavior and mental processes

22. Scientific Method Formulate testable questions Formulate testable questions Develop hypotheses Develop hypotheses Design study to collect data Design study to collect data Experimental Experimental Descriptive Descriptive Analyze data to arrive at conclusions Analyze data to arrive at conclusions Use of statistical procedures Use of statistical procedures Use of meta-analysis Use of meta-analysis Report the findings Report the findings Publication Publication Replication Replication

23. Definitions Empirical evidence—based upon objective observation, measurement, and/or experimentation Empirical evidence—based upon objective observation, measurement, and/or experimentation Hypothesis—tentative statement about the relationship between variables Hypothesis—tentative statement about the relationship between variables Variables—factors that can vary in ways that can be observed, measured, and verified (independent versus dependent) Variables—factors that can vary in ways that can be observed, measured, and verified (independent versus dependent) Operational definition—precise description of how the variables will be measured Operational definition—precise description of how the variables will be measured

24. Theory Tentative explanation for observed findings Tentative explanation for observed findings Results from accumulation of findings of individual studies Results from accumulation of findings of individual studies Tool for explaining observed behavior Tool for explaining observed behavior Reflects self-correcting nature of scientific method. Reflects self-correcting nature of scientific method.

25. Descriptive Study Descriptive—strategies for observing and describing behavior Descriptive—strategies for observing and describing behavior Describes a set of facts Describes a set of facts Does not look for relationships between facts Does not look for relationships between facts Does not predict what may influence the facts Does not predict what may influence the facts May or may not include numerical data May or may not include numerical data

26. Naturalistic Observation Researchers directly observe and record behavior rather than relying on subject descriptions. In naturalistic observation researcher records behavior as it occurs naturally. Researchers directly observe and record behavior rather than relying on subject descriptions. In naturalistic observation researcher records behavior as it occurs naturally.

27. Case Study Method Highly detailed description of a single individual Highly detailed description of a single individual Generally used to investigate rare, unusual, or extreme conditions Generally used to investigate rare, unusual, or extreme conditions

28. Survey Methods Designed to investigate opinions, behaviors, or characteristics of a particular group. Usually in self-report form. Designed to investigate opinions, behaviors, or characteristics of a particular group. Usually in self-report form.

29. Samples and Sampling Population—large (potentially infinite) group represented by the sample. Findings are generalized to this group. Population—large (potentially infinite) group represented by the sample. Findings are generalized to this group. Sample—selected segment of the population Sample—selected segment of the population Representative sample—closely parallels the population on relevant characteristics Representative sample—closely parallels the population on relevant characteristics Random selection—every member of larger group has equal change of being selected for the study sample Random selection—every member of larger group has equal change of being selected for the study sample

30. Correlational Study Collects a set of facts organized into two or more categories Collects a set of facts organized into two or more categories measure parents’ disciplinary style measure parents’ disciplinary style measure children’s behavior measure children’s behavior Examine the relationship between categories Examine the relationship between categories Correlation reveals relationships among facts Correlation reveals relationships among facts e.g., more democratic parents have children who behave better e.g., more democratic parents have children who behave better

31. Correlational Study Correlation cannot prove causation Correlation cannot prove causation Do democratic parents produce better behaved children? Do democratic parents produce better behaved children? Do better behaved children encourage parents to be democratic? Do better behaved children encourage parents to be democratic? May be an unmeasured common factor May be an unmeasured common factor e.g., good neighborhoods produce democratic adults and well-behaved children e.g., good neighborhoods produce democratic adults and well-behaved children

32. Coefficient of Correlation Numerical indication of magnitude and direction of the relationship between two variables. Numerical indication of magnitude and direction of the relationship between two variables. Always falls between the range of -1.00 to +1.00. Always falls between the range of -1.00 to +1.00. The number indicates the strength of the relationship. The number indicates the strength of the relationship. The closer the number is to 1.00 the stronger the correlation. The closer the number is to 1.00 the stronger the correlation. Sign indicates the direction of the relationship between the two variables. Sign indicates the direction of the relationship between the two variables. Positive correlation—two variables vary systematically in the SAME direction Positive correlation—two variables vary systematically in the SAME direction Negative correlation—two variables vary systematically in OPPOSITE directions Negative correlation—two variables vary systematically in OPPOSITE directions

33. Experiments Experimental—strategies for inferring cause and effect relationships among variables Experimental—strategies for inferring cause and effect relationships among variables Direct way to test a hypothesis about a cause-effect relationship between factors Direct way to test a hypothesis about a cause-effect relationship between factors Factors are called variables Factors are called variables One variable is controlled by the experimenter One variable is controlled by the experimenter e.g., democratic vs. authoritarian classroom e.g., democratic vs. authoritarian classroom The other is observed and measured The other is observed and measured e.g., cooperative behavior among students e.g., cooperative behavior among students

34. Experimental Variables Independent variable (IV) Independent variable (IV) the controlled factor in an experiment (i.e. the one you manipulate) the controlled factor in an experiment (i.e. the one you manipulate) hypothesized to cause an effect on another variable hypothesized to cause an effect on another variable Dependent variable (DV) Dependent variable (DV) the measured facts the measured facts hypothesized to be influenced by IV hypothesized to be influenced by IV

35. Independent Variable Must have at least two levels Must have at least two levels categories – male vs. female categories – male vs. female numeric – ages 10, 12, 14 numeric – ages 10, 12, 14 Simplest is experimental vs. control group Simplest is experimental vs. control group experimental gets treatment experimental gets treatment control does not control does not

36. Experimental Design Random sample—every member of the population being studied should have an equal chance of being selected for the study Random sample—every member of the population being studied should have an equal chance of being selected for the study Random assignment—every subject in the study should have an equal chance of being placed in either the experimental or control group Random assignment—every subject in the study should have an equal chance of being placed in either the experimental or control group

37. Limitations of Experimental Designs Often criticized for having little to do with actual behavior because of strict laboratory conditions. Often criticized for having little to do with actual behavior because of strict laboratory conditions. Ethical considerations in creating some more “real life” situations. Ethical considerations in creating some more “real life” situations.

38. Ethical Guidelines Informed consent and voluntary participation Informed consent and voluntary participation Students as participants Students as participants Use of deception Use of deception Confidentiality of information Confidentiality of information Information about the study and debriefing Information about the study and debriefing