1. Chapter 10
LEADERSHIP
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2. Learning Objectives You should learn to:
1.Define the leader and explain the difference between the leader and manager
2.Summarize the trait theories of leader
3.Describe behavioral theories of leadership
4.Explain the Fiedler contingency model
5.Contrast the Hersey-Blanchard情境理论and leader participation models of leadership
6.Summarize the path-goal路径—目标model
© Prentice Hall, 2002
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3. Learning Objectives (cont.)
You should learn to:
7.Contrast transactional事务领导者and transformational leaders变革领导者
8.Describe the main characteristics of leaders领袖魅力, visionary愿景规划, and team leaders
9.Explain the various sources of power a leader might possess
10.Describe how leaders can create a culture of trust
11.Explain gender and cultural differences in leadership
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4. Leadership
1.Define the leader and explain the difference between the leader and manager
Leader:someone who can influence others to perform beyond the actions dictated by formal authority. Leader may either be appointed or emerge from within a group.
Manager:someone who are appointed and have legitimate power that allows them to reward and punish, and their ability to influence is founded upon the formal authority inherent in their positions.
Leadership:process of influencing a group toward the achievement of goals.
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5. Early Leadership Theories
2.Summarize the trait theories of leader
leader traits特质 - characteristics that might be used to differentiate leaders from nonleaders;might be used as a basis for selecting the “right” people to assume formal leadership positions.
-6 traits of the leaders differed from nonleaders:
Drive: exerting（发挥） high energy levels:
The desire to lead:wanting to influence others and willingness to take responsibility;
Honesty and integrity: being truthful and nondeceitful and being consistent in one’s actions.
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6. Early Leadership Theories
Self-control: an absence of self-doubt;
Intelligence: ability to gather,synthesize, and interpret large amounts of information;
Job-relevant knowledge: knowledge about the company and industry to assist in making well-informed decision.
proved to be impossible to identify a set of traits that would always differentiate leaders from nonleaders
explanations based solely on traits ignored the interactions of leaders, their groups, and situational factors
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7. Early Leadership Theories
3. Behavioral Theories
know the effective leaders would be provided on the basis of training leaders
(1)University of Iowa Studies - Kurt Lewin艾奥瓦大学的研究 -科特勒温
explored three leadership styles
autocratic独裁型风格 - leader dictated work methods
democratic - involved employees in decision making
used feedback to coach employees
laissez-faire放任型风格 - gave the group complete freedom
satisfaction higher with democratic leader
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8. Early Leadership Theories (cont.)
Behavioral Theories (cont.)
(2)Ohio State Studies Business Research Institute俄亥俄州立大学商业研究院的研究 - identified two dimensions of leadership
initiating structure着手组织维度 - extent to which a leader was likely to define and structure her/his role and the roles of group members to seek goal attainment
consideration关怀员工维度 - extent to which a leader had job relationships characterized by mutual trust and respect for group members’ ideas and feelings
Findings： high-high leaders高—高型领导者achieved high group task performance and satisfaction
however, high-high was not always effective
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9. Early Leadership Theories (cont.)
(3)University of Michigan Survey Research Centre Studies密歇根大学调查研究中心的研究 - identified two dimensions of leadership
employee oriented - emphasized interpersonal relationships
accepts individual differences among subordinates
Finding:associated with high productivity and high job satisfaction与高生产率正相关
production oriented - emphasized the technical or task aspects of the job
concerned with accomplishing the group’s tasks
Finding: associated with low productivity and low job satisfaction
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10. Early Leadership Theories (cont.)
(4)Managerial Grid管理方格(p295) C F Pe
Concern for production(CFPr)
1.9
9.9
5.5
1.1
9.1
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11. Early Leadership Theories (cont.)
- two-dimensional grid that provides a framework for conceptualizing leadership style by Robert Black and Jane Mouton
dimensions are concern for people and concern for production
five management styles described
impoverished贫乏型(1,1) - minimum effort to reach goals and sustain organization membership
task (9,1) - arrange operations to be efficient with minimum human involvement
middle-of-the-road中庸之道型(5,5) - adequate performance by balancing work and human concerns
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12. Early Leadership Theories (cont.)
country club (1,9) - attention to human needs and creation of comfortable work environment
team (9,9) - committed people motivated by a common purpose, trust, and mutual respect
concluded that managers should use (9,9) style
little empirical evidence to support this conclusion
no rationale基本原理 for what made a manager an effective leader
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13. Contingency Theories Of Leadership
Basic Assumptions
leader effectiveness depends on the situation
must isolate situational conditions情境条件or contingencies
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14. Contingency Theories (cont.)
4.Explain the Fiedler contingency model
Fiedler Model费德勒模型
effective group performance depends on matching the leader’s style and the degree to which the situation permits the leader to control and influence
Least-Preferred Coworker (LPC)最难共事者问卷 - measures the leader’s style of interacting with subordinates
high LPC - least preferred coworker described in relatively favorable terms相对积极的词汇来描述
leader is relationship oriented
low LPC - least preferred coworker described in relatively unfavorable terms
leader is task oriented
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15. Contingency Theories (cont.)
model assumes that leader’s style was always the same and could not change in different situations
three contingency factors that identify eight possible leadership situations that vary in favorability
leader-member relations - degree of confidence, trust, and respect members had for leader
task structure - degree to which job assignments were formalized and procedurized规范化和程序化
position power - degree of influence a leader had over power-based activities运用权力活动施加影响
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16. Findings Of The Fiedler Model
Good
Poor
Performance
Task
Oriented
Relationship
Oriented
Category
Leader-Member
Relations
Task Structure
Position Power
I II III IV V VI VII VIII
Good Good Good Good Poor Poor Poor Poor
High High Low Low High High Low Low
Strong Weak Strong Weak Strong Weak Strong Weak
Favorable
Unfavorable
Moderate
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17. Contingency Theories (cont.)
results indicated that:
task-oriented leaders performed better in situations that are very favorable to them and in situations that are very unfavorable
relationship-oriented leaders performed better in situations that are moderately favorable
implications for improving leadership
place leaders in situations suited to their style
change the situation to fit the leader
considerable empirical support for the model
unrealistic to assume that leader cannot alter her/his style
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18. Contingency Theories (cont.)
5.Contrast the Hersey-Blanchard Situational Leadership Theory赫塞--布兰查德情境理论and leader participation models of leadership by Victor Vroom and Phillip Yetton.
Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Theory
appropriate leadership style is contingent on the followers’ readiness成熟度
readiness - extent to which people have the ability and willingness to accomplish a specific task
reflects the reality that it is followers who accept or reject the leader
based on two leadership dimensions
task behaviors
relationship behaviors
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19. Contingency Theories (cont.)
Situational Leadership Theory (cont.)
four leadership styles defined by the two dimensions
Telling告知- leader defines roles and tells people how to do their jobs
people are neither competent nor confident
Selling推销- leader is both directive and supportive
people are unable but willing to do necessary tasks
Participating - leader and follower make decisions
people are able but unwilling to do the job
Delegating授权- leader provides little direction or support
people are able and willing to do the job
tests of the theory have yielded disappointing results
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20. Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Model
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21. Contingency Theories (cont.)
Leader-Participation Model
Victor Vroom维克多·弗罗姆and associates - relate leadership behavior and participation to decision making
provides a sequential set of rules to follow in determining the form and amount of participation in decision making
rule selection determined by the situation
provides an excellent guide to help managers choose an appropriate leadership style to fit the situation
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22. Contingency Theories (cont.)
Leader Participation Model(cont.)-5 Leadership Styles(p300)
Decide裁决- leader makes decision alone, either announcing or telling to group
Consult Individually个别磋商 - leader makes decision after obtaining feedback from group members individually
Consult Group群体磋商 - leader makes decision after obtaining feedback from group members in meeting
Facilitate推动和促进 - leader, acting as facilitator助推器, defines problem and boundaries范围for decision-making after presenting it to group
Delegate授权 - leader permits group to make decision within prescribed limits规定的限制
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23. Time-Driven Model
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24. Contingency Theories (cont.)
6.Summarize the path-goal路径—目标model
Path-Goal Model
Robert House罗伯特·豪斯 - leader’s job is to assist followers in attaining their goals that are compatible with the overall objectives of the group or organization
leader behavior is:
acceptable可接受的to the degree that group views leader behavior as a source of immediate or future satisfaction
motivational激励作用to the extent that it:
makes satisfaction of subordinates’ needs contingent on effective performance
provides the coaching, guidance, support, and rewards necessary for effective performance
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25. Contingency Theories (cont.)
identifies four leadership behaviors
Directive指示型领导者 - describes tasks, sets schedules, and offers guidance on task performance
Supportive - shows concern for subordinates
Participative - relies on subordinates’ suggestions when making a decision
Achievement oriented - sets challenging goals
assumes that a leader can display any or all of the behaviors depending on the situation
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26. Contingency Theories (cont.)
two classes of contingency variables两大类权变变量
environment - outside the control
determine the type of leader behavior required personal – a part of characteristics of the follower
determine how the environment and leader behavior are interpreted解释
leader behavior will be ineffective when:
it is redundant重复with sources of environmental structure 环境内容与领导者行为彼此重复
it is incongruent不一致 with follower characteristics
most evidence supports the logic underlying逻辑基础 the model
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27. Path-Goal Theory Environmental Contingency Factors Task Structure
Formal Authority System
Work Group
Leader
Behavior
Outcomes
Directive
Supportive
Participative
Achievement oriented
Performance
Satisfaction
Subordinate
Contingency Factors
Locus of Contro控制点
Experience
Perceived Ability
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28. Cutting-Edge Approaches To Leadership
7.Contrast transactional事务领导者and transformational leaders变革领导者
Transformational-Transactional Leadership
transactional事务型- leaders who guide or motivate their followers in the direction of established goals by clarifying role and task requirements
transformational变革型- inspire followers to transcend超越their own self-interests for the good of the organization
capable of having profound effect深远影响on followers
pay attention to concerns of followers
change followers’ awareness of issues
excite and inspire followers to put forth extra effort
built on top of transactional leadership
good evidence of superiority优于of transactional leadership
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29. Cutting-Edge Approaches (cont.)
8.Describe the main characteristics of charismatic领袖魅力, visionary愿景规划, and team leaders
Charismatic-Visionary Leadership领袖魅力型
charismatic - enthusiastic, self-confident leader whose personality and actions influence people
can articulate描述a vision for which s/he is willing to take risks
sensitive to environmental constraints and follower needs
exhibit behaviors that are out of the ordinary超乎常规
charismatic leadership correlated with high job performance and satisfaction among followers
individuals can be trained to exhibit charismatic behaviors
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30. Cutting-Edge Approaches (cont.)
Charismatic-Visionary Leadership (cont.)
visionary愿景规划- ability to create and articulate a realistic, credible, and attractive vision that improves the present situation能够设计一个现实的、可信的、诱人的前景目标
presents a clear and compelling imagery that inspires enthusiasm to pursue the organization’s goals
people must believe that the vision is attainable
visionary leader has the ability to:
explain the vision to others
express the vision verbally and behaviorally
apply the vision to different leadership contexts情境
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31. Cutting-Edge Approaches (cont.)
Team Leadership
role of team leader different from the traditional leadership role
requires skills such as:
patience to share information
ability to trust others and give up authority
understanding when to intervene the followers
team leader’s job focuses on:
managing the team’s external boundary
facilitating the team process
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32. Cutting-Edge Approaches (cont.)
Team Leadership (cont.)
team leaders serve as:
liaisons with external constituencies对外联络官 - clarify others’ expectations of the team, gather information from the outside, and secure保护 needed resources
troubleshooters - ask penetrating敏锐的 questions, help team talk through problems员工针对困难进行交流, and gather needed resources
conflict managers - identify source of conflict, who is involved, and find resolution options
coaches - clarify role expectations, teach, offer support, and whatever else is necessary to keep performance levels high
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33. Specific Team Leadership Roles
Coach
Liaison with
external
constituencies
Team
Leadership
Roles
Conflict
manager
Troubleshooter
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34. Contemporary Issues In Leadership
9.Explain the various sources of power a leader might possess
Leaders and Power
five sources of power
legitimate法定权力 - authority associated with a position
coercive强制权力 - ability to punish or control
followers react out of fear
reward - ability to give positive benefits
provide anything that another person values
expert - influence based on special skills or knowledge
referent参照权力 - arises because of a person’s desirable resources or personal traits
leads to admiration and desire to be like that person
来自对另一个人的敬重，以及希望自己成为那样的人
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35. Contemporary Issues In Leadership (cont.)
10.Describe how leaders can create a culture of trust
Creating a Culture of Trust
credibility信誉 - honesty, competence, and ability to inspire
honesty is the number one characteristic of admired leaders
trust - belief in the integrity为人, character人格, and ability of the leader
confident that rights and interests will not be abused
important for empowering subordinates
must trust employees to use their new authority
trend toward expanding nonauthority relationships within and between organizations widens the need for trust
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36. Building Trust Trust Practice Openness Be fair Demonstrate competence
工作透明化
Be fair
Demonstrate
competence
Speak your
feelings
Trust
Maintain
confidences
Tell the
truth
Show
Consistency
始终如一
Fulfill your
promises
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37. Contemporary Issues In Leadership (cont.)
Leading Through Empowerment
managers increasingly leading by empowerment
need for quick decisions by people who are most knowledgeable about the issues
larger spans of control resulting from downsizing meant that subordinates had to be empowered to deal with work load
11.Explain gender and cultural differences in leadership Gender and Leadership
gender provides behavioral tendencies in leadership
women adopt more democratic style, share power and information, and attempt to enhance followers’ self-worth
men more directive, command-in-control style
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38. Contemporary Issues In Leadership (cont.)
Gender and Leadership (cont.)
Is different better?有差异是好事吗 ?
when rated评估by peers同事, employees, and bosses, women executives score better than male counterparts
explanations of difference in effectiveness include:
flexibility, teamwork, trust, and information sharing are replacing rigid structures, competitive individualism, control, and secrecy
best managers listen, motivate, and provide support
women do the above better than men
there is still no “one best” leadership style
can’t assume that women’s style is always better
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39. Where Female Managers Do Better
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40. Contemporary Issues In Leadership (cont.)
Leadership Styles in Different Countries
effectiveness of leadership style influenced by national culture
leaders constrained by the cultural conditions their followers have come to expect
most leadership theories developed in the U.S.
emphasize follower responsibilities rather than rights
assume self-gratification满足感rather than commitment to duty
assume centrality of work and democratic value orientation
stress rationality rather than spirituality灵性
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41. Contemporary Issues in Leadership (cont.)
Sometimes Leadership is Irrelevant!
leader behaviors may be irrelevant in some situations
factors that reduce leadership importance include:
follower characteristics - experience, training, professional orientation, or need for independence replace the need for leader support and ability to reduce ambiguity抑制领导的效果
job characteristics - unambiguous and routine tasks, or tasks that are intrinsically本身satisfying, place fewer demands on leaders
organizational characteristics - explicit goals, rigid rules and procedures, and cohesive work groups高内聚力的工作群体can substitute for formal leadership
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