1. Motivation and Emotion

2. Motivation Concepts and Theories
Motivation—factors within and outside an organism that cause it to behave a certain way at a certain time
Drive—an internal condition or impulse that activates behavior to reduce a need and restore homeostasis
Incentive—external goal that “pulls” or “pushes” behavior

3. Theories of Motivation
Instinct—motives are innate
Drive—biological needs as motivation
Incentive—extrinsic things push or pull behavior
Arousal—people are motivated to maintain optimum level of arousal
Humanistic—hierarchy of needs

4. Performance and Arousal Level
What happen when we succeed at raising our arousal levels?
Below: the effect of arousal on performance depends on how comfortable we are with the task.
Yerkes-Dodson Law:
Arousal levels can help performance but too much arousal can interfere with performance.
For taking an exam, moderate arousal might be best.
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5. Drives as Tissue Needs
Homeostasis—the constancy of internal conditions that the body must actively maintain
Drives may be due to an upset in homeostasis inducing behavior to correct the imbalance.
Animals do behave in accordance with their tissue needs (e.g., increasing or decreasing caloric intake, drive for salt).
However, homeostasis cannot explain all drives.

6. Drives as States of the Brain
Cerebral cortex
Portion of
limbic system
Hypothalamus
Pituitary
gland
Brainstem
The hub of many central drive systems lies in the hypothalamus.

7. Drive Reduction
A drive is an aroused/tense state related to a physical need such as hunger or thirst.
Drive-reduction theory refers to the idea that humans are motivated to reduce these drives, such as eating to reduce the feeling of hunger. This restores homeostasis, a steady internal state.
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8. Hunger Drive
Other stimuli that act on the brain to increase or decrease hunger include:
satiety signals from the stomach (CCK)
signals indicating the amount of food molecules in the blood (insulin)
leptin, a hormone indicating the amount of fat in the body
internals vs. externals

9. Another Motivation: “To Belong”
What do people need besides food and sex?
Aristotle: social life
Alfred Adler: community
In Middle English, to be wretched [wrecche] means to “be without kin nearby”
Roy Baumeister, Mark Leary, and Abraham Maslow say we need:
“To Belong.”
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Belonging: being connected to others, part of a group or family or community.

10. Disrupted Bonds, New Beginnings
Children repeatedly moved away from primary caretakers in childhood may have difficulty forming deep attachments in adulthood.
People losing a loved one or moving away from a hometown can feel grief.
Being ostracized, cut off from social contact or excluded, can lead to real physical pain.
And yet people can find resilience and relief from pain by building social connections.
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11. Social Networking = Social Connection?
Do updates and tweets build connection?
Use of social networking can become a compulsion, sacrificing face-to-face interaction and in- depth conversation.
Research shows: Portrayal of one’s self online is often close to one’s actual sense of self.
Research shows: Online social networking is associated with
Narcissism/self-centeredness
less connection to neighbors
more connection to people who share our narrow interests and viewpoints
Is our online self-disclosure honest, and healthy?
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Regarding the face-to-face interaction: I suggest pointing out here that something called “Facebook” may have reduced our exposure to both faces and books.
Is social networking making us more connected, or less?

12. Motivation to excel in work
What is our motivation to do well in our jobs?
Is it just the desire for belonging, and gaining income to meet basic needs?
Humans in many cultures seem to have an achievement motivation, a desire for:
accomplishment of goals,
mastery of skills,
meeting of standards,
control of resources.
What helps us satisfy our achievement motivation?
Discipline: Sticking to a task despite distractions
10-year rule: Having enough experience to Develop expertise in a field
Grit: passionate persistence at a goal
Hardiness: Resilience under stress
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13. How much do we eat? Eating depends in part on situational influences.
Social facilitation: the presence of others accentuates our typical eating habits
Unit bias: we may eat only one serving/unit (scoop, plateful, bun-full) of food, but will eat more if the serving size is larger
Buffet effect: we eat more if more options are available
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Instructor: the buffet effect (not an official term; I just made it up here) can be explained in evolutionary terms. See if students can guess or recall from the reading that our ancestors stored fat and nutrients during bountiful times, when more variety was available. For example, humans prepared for possible winter famines in early fall when more kinds of plants were bearing fruit and animals were storing fat.

14. Do we need to control our hunger?
When we eat enough to noticeably gain weight, we can face discrimination, bullying, and depression.
Standards for body size can vary in different cultures, sometimes creating an unhealthy norm of being overweight or underweight.
Body fat has been seen as a sign of affluence, and thus has been considered attractive.
But at a certain ratio of weight to height, health risks arise.
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15. Prevalence of Obesity
Rates of being overweight
BMI (body mass index) >30: Obese
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Projected 
1 billion people worldwide are overweight, 300 million of which are obese (BMI >30).

16. Research on Weight Regulation and Dieting
Fat cells are determined by genetics and food intake
They increase with weight gain, but merely shrink with weight loss; may stimulate hunger
Weight loss causes a decline in basal metabolism
Fat cells
Normal
diet
High-fat
Return to
normal diet

17. Ob/Ob Mice lack the ability to produce leptin and therefore the mice think body fat stores are comletely depleted and continue to eat.

18. Effects of Culture and Habits on Body Weight
Baseline body weight—cluster of genetic and environmental factors that cause a person’s weight to settle within a given range
Weight can be affected by factors like diet, exercise, and daily habits (e.g., stairs instead of elevator)

19. Basal Metabolic Rate
The rate at which the body uses energy for vital functions while at rest
Factors that influence BMR
Age
Sex
Size
Genetics
Food intake

20. Excess Weight and Obesity
Obesity—condition characterized by excessive body fat and a BMI equal to or greater than 30.0
Overweight—condition characterized by BMI between 25.0 and 29.9

22. Factors Contributing to Being Overweight
Highly palatable food—we eat because it tastes so good
SuperSize It—food portions are larger than necessary or health
Cafeteria Diet Effect—more food and more variety leads us to eat more
Snacking—does not cause us to eat less at dinner
BMR—changes through the lifespan
Sedentary lifestyles

23. Factors in Obesity
Genetic susceptibility—some people are more likely to be predisposed to obesity
Leptin resistance—condition where higher-than-normal levels of leptin do not produce desired physiological response
Weight cycling—repeated dieting, weight loss, and weight gain tends to result in higher weight and reduced BMR

24. Eating Disorders
Anorexia nervosa—characterized by excessive weight loss, irrational fear of gaining weight, and distorted body image
Bulimia nervosa—characterized by binges of extreme overeating followed by self-induced purging such as vomiting, laxatives
Binge-eating—disorder characterized by recurring episodes of binge eating without purging

25. Human Sexual Response Stage 1: Excitement—beginning of sexual arousal
Stage 2: Plateau—increased physical arousal
Stage 3: Orgasm—male ejaculates, female vaginal contractions
Stage 4: Resolution—arousal subsides

28. What Motivates Sexual Behavior
Necessary for the survival of the species but not of the individual
Lower animals motivated by hormonal changes in the female
Higher species less influenced by hormones and more by learning and environmental influences

29. Sexual Orientation
Sexual orientation—direction of a person's emotional and erotic attractions
Heterosexual—sexual attraction for the opposite sex
Homosexual—sexual attraction for the same sex
Gay—typically used to describe male homosexuals
Lesbian—typically used to describe female homosexuals
Bisexual—sexual attraction for both sexes

30. Determination of Sexual Orientation
Genetics—role suggested by twin and family studies
Brain structure—differences found in hypothalamus of homosexual and heterosexual men
Complex issue with no clear answers

31. Some General Findings
Sexual orientation is an early-emerging, ingrained aspect of the self that probably does not change.
No consistent relationship between orientation and childhood experiences (e.g., parenting, abuse, sexual experience)
Controversial findings suggest a possible relationship among prenatal stress, androgens, and the development of brain systems that play a role in sexual attraction.

32. Sexual Attitudes and Behaviors
Reported differences between males and females in these areas have become less pronounced since the 1960s.
Recent meta-analyses indicate that men tend to have more sexual partners, experience first intercourse at an earlier age, and masturbate more frequently than women.

33. Sexuality in Adulthood
Majority of adults (80%) report having none or one sexual partner in the past year (marriage factor).
Majority of men ages have sex about seven times per month.
Majority of women ages have sex about six times per month.
Vaginal intercourse is nearly universal as the most widely practiced sexual activity among heterosexual couples.
50 percent of older Americans reported sexual activity at least once per month.

34. Sexual Disorders and Problems
Sexual dysfunction—consistent disturbance in sexual desire, arousal, or orgasm that causes psychological distress and interpersonal difficulties
41% of women and 31% of men report sexual problems
Low desire and arousal problems common among women
Premature ejaculation and erectile problems common among men

35. Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STD)
STD—any of several infectious diseases transmitted through sexual intercourse or other sexual contact
Of the 12 million cases of STDs diagnosed annually in the US, about 8 million are among people under 25 years of age
Many STDs have mild or no symptoms, yet left untreated can cause serious health problems

36. AIDS Epidemic
Acquired immune deficiency syndrome—caused by exchange of bodily fluids (blood, blood products, semen) containing the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which attacks and weakens the immune system
HIV can stay in the body for many years without apparent symptoms
As the HIV attacks the immune system, the person becomes very susceptible to other opportunistic diseases (pneumonia, cancers)
Highest risk groups are gay men, IV drug users sharing needles, and people with multiple sex partners

37. Prevention and Treatment
There is currently no cure for AIDS, but it can be treated with complex “drug cocktails,” which improve quality and duration of life but have many side effects and are extremely expensive.
Prevention is possible using condoms, not engaging in other high risk behaviors such as sharing needles, and improved blood screening and infection control in health care settings.

38. Humanistic Theories
Abraham Maslow suggested that motives are divided into several levels from basic survival needs to psychological and self-fulfillment needs.

40. Self-Determination Theory
Autonomy—need to determine, control, and organize one’s own behavior and goals
Competence—need to effectively learn and master challenging tasks
Relatedness—need to feel attached to others

41. Arousal Theory
People are motivated to maintain an optimum level of arousal—neither too high nor too low
Curiosity motive—helps us understand our environment

42. Sensation Seeking
A person high in sensation seeking tends to look for exciting (and sometimes risky) activities.

43. Arousal Theory

44. Competence and Achievement
Competence motivation—behavior aimed at demonstrating competence and exerting control in a situation
Achievement motivation—behavior aimed at excelling, succeeding, or outperforming others at some activity

45. Concept of Emotion
A class of subjective feelings elicited by stimuli that have high significance to an individual
stimuli that produce high arousal generally produce strong feelings
are rapid and automatic
emerged through natural selection to benefit survival and reproduction

46. Basic Emotions Fear, surprise, anger, disgust, happiness, sadness
Basic emotions are innate and “hard-wired”
Complex emotions are a blend of many aspects of emotions
Classified along two dimensions
Pleasant or unpleasant
Level of activation or arousal associated with the emotion

48. Physical Arousal and Emotions
Sympathetic nervous system is aroused with emotions (fight-or-flight response)
Different emotions stimulate different responses
Fear—decrease in skin temperature (cold-feet)
Anger—increase in skin temperature (hot under the collar)

49. Brain and Emotions Amygdala
evaluate the significance of stimuli and generate emotional responses
generate hormonal secretions and autonomic reactions that accompany strong emotions
damage causes “psychic blindness” and the inability to recognize fear in facial expressions and voice

51. Emotion and Facial Expressions
Each basic emotion is associated with a unique facial expression.
Facial expressions are innate and “hard-wired”.
Innate facial expressions the same across many cultures.
Display rules—social and cultural rules that regulate emotional expression, especially facial expressions.

52. James-Lange Theory

53. Schachter-Singer “Two-factor” Theory: Emotion = Body Plus a Cognitive Label
The Schachter-Singer “two-factor” theory suggests that emotions do not exist until we add a label to whatever body sensations we are feeling.
In a study by Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer in 1962, subjects experienced a spillover effect when arousal was caused by injections of what turned out to be adrenaline. The subjects interpreted their agitation to whatever emotion the others in the room appeared to be feeling; the emotional label “spilled over” from others.
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Stanley Schachter ( ) and Jerome Singer (d. 2010) developed the “two-factor” theory of emotion in 1962.
I face a stranger, and my heart is pounding. Is it fear? Excitement? Anger? Lust? Or did I have too much caffeine? The label completes the emotion.

54. Two-Factor Theory

55. Is Experienced Emotion as Universal as Expressed Emotion?
Carroll Izzard suggested that there are ten basic emotions: those evident at birth (seen here) plus contempt, shame, and guilt.
No animation.

56. Embodied Emotion: The role of the autonomic nervous system
The physiological arousal felt during various emotions is orchestrated by the sympathetic nervous system, which triggers activity and changes in various organs.
Later, the parasympathetic division calms down the body.
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57. Detecting Lies and Fakes
Brain signs of lying:
Polygraphs (detecting physiological arousal) fail sometimes at correctly identifying when people are lying.
Visible signs of lying: eye blinks decrease, and other facial movements change.
In which image is Paul Ekman “lying” with a fake smile?
 A real smile uses involuntary muscles around the eyes.
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58. Linking Emotions and Expressive Behaviors: Facial Feedback
The facial feedback effect: facial position and muscle changes can alter which emotion we feel.
In one study, people whose faces were moved into smiling or frowning positions experienced a change in mood.
Fake a relaxed smile, and you might feel better!
It’s not just about faces. In one experiment, extending a 1) middle finger or 2) thumb while reading led to seeing characters with 1) hostility or 2) positive attitude.
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Instructor: here are some introductory comments before the bullets appear.
We seem biologically ready for emotional experience (sadness) to trigger a related facial expression (drooping eyes, frown).
How connected are these feelings and expressive behaviors? Does the connection work in the other direction? Will frowning make me sad?
(The images from the book have labels removed. You can remind students of the bandages/rubber band placement.)
Exercise you can do with students: with a box of straws, have students alternately 1) hold the end of the straw pursed in their lips only, head tipped down, and 2) hold the straw sideways in their mouths, in gritted teeth, pushed back so that lips are stretched and pushed back, head held back. In each case, ask them to think about a person 1) who lives in the room/house next door, and 2) who lives across the hall/street. Take a poll to see if people felt more negatively about 2) and more positively about 1).
About the man at the top feeling happier, you can ask your students: was this because of the facial feedback effect, or because the guy at the bottom was more uncomfortable?
The guy at the top, though forced into a smiling position, ended up feeling happier than the other guy.