1. Guidelines for Structuring the Scientific Paper Merija Jirgensons Distance Education Study Centre Riga Technical University Doctoral Student Writing Workshop RTU Doctoral Student Support Programme Autumn 2015, Riga

2. What is a Scientific Paper?  A scientific paper is written and published to report original research results;  When using English, the language must be clear and precise;  Goal: Communicate original scientific results to as large a scientific community as possible.

3. IMRAD Preferred paper format for original research results for “hard” sciences and social sciences—adopted by American Institute of Standards (ANSI) (1972), IMRAD structure: I – Introduction M – Method and Materials R – Results A (a) – and … (IMRaD) D – Discussion Alternatives, critics (later)

4. Variations on IMRAD: examples AIMRAD An abstract is added to the above; IMRADC A conclusion is added—in a scientific paper a conclusion is optional--BUT recommended ILMRAD / C Literature review is added

5. Why IMRAD? IMRAD is a simple, logical way to communicate original research results Focus is 4 Research Questions: 1. What is the problem? (Introduction) 2. How can the problem be solved? (Methods and Materials) 3. What are the findings? (Results) 4. What does it mean? (Discussion)

6. Parts of the Scientific Paper (with IMRAD structure)* Title –Accurately reflects content –Brief, clear, precise—no more than 12 words –Used for indexing and access Author(s) Current practice: listed according to the importance of contribution, include affiliation, e-mails; Corresponding author’s name marked by asterisk or other notation. *IMRAD Summary based on Nair and Nair, 2014, pp. 16-25.

7. Parts of the Scientific Paper (IMRAD focus) (2) Key Words –From 3 to 5 key words –Key concepts in paper –Used for indexing and access to your paper— choose with care –Some journals do not allow

8. Parts of the Scientific Paper: Abstract Concise statement of the content of the paper About 150 – 250 words (usually one paragraph) The most looked at part of your article; each word should be weighed; remember, you are selling this to the publisher and the public; Elements included in the abstract: (Briefly highlight) –Purpose; identify the problem and state its significance –Hypothesis –Methodology –Results –Discussion (identify the significance of the results) –Your contribution (what your research adds to the body of scholarly knowledge)

9. Parts of the Scientific Paper: Introduction (1) State your research problem and why it is important—Q1: What is the problem? Brief—3 to 4 paragraphs in short paper (about 500 words) Review the relevant literature (From 2 to 4 significant, recent articles for a short paper)—How was your topic dealt with? What did you learn? What was left out? Identify the gaps--what was left out? Explain how your research fills the gaps—that is your contribution.

10. Parts of the Scientific Paper: Introduction (2) Your hypothesis—start with a question —turn it into a statement; Questioning is part of the research process and is followed throughout. Research starts with questions, often basic questions Your methodology, why selected for your study and how it meets your goals Proposed outcome and proposed benefits of your solution (it may be both practical and theoretical) Practical means applied Theoretical means a structural model for future research

11. Parts of the Scientific Paper: Methods and Materials (1) All materials (tools, instruments) and procedures used in a research project to support your hypothesis; Precisely describe how your research design and materials selected will support your hypothesis; Results MUST Be logical and reproducible by other researchers (ask a colleague if your M & M section makes sense) Ethics statement for human subjects describe how consent was secured: oral, written, or why consent could not be obtained. Ethics statement is included in the M & M section of paper, but not the written consent forms; a copy of blank form may be included; Signed forms should be kept in secure place with researcher.

12. Parts of the Scientific Paper: Methods and Materials (2) Other points: Be brief, be selective Chronological, but topics should be kept together; Subheadings may be used; New method(s) described in detail; Written in the past tense and / or passive voice; If 1 researcher no “I” ; two or more—”we” all right May use tables and figures, but explain in the text Citations (references), if needed Use SI System (Système International d'Unités)— modernized metric system adapted for science and business

13. Parts of the Scientific Paper: Methods and materials (3) − examples All materials and products, participants / subjects and experiments used to support your hypothesis (your focus questions) Participants, gender, age group, vocations, control groups, Be sure participants sign consent forms, Technology products, testing models, Questionnaires, surveys, research design, statistical methods; Data collected when administered, how? classroom? Telephone? Interviews, follow-up interviews? Time intervals between interviews? Impact changes observed over prescribed time period ? Experiments performed, models developed, figures, charts, flow charts, software

14. Parts of the Scientific Paper: Results Summarize the results. Do they support your hypothesis? –What was achieved? Does the evidence (data, other feed-back) support the results? What remains to be done? –Limitations? –Any modifications of hypothesis? Be selective--give representative data; statically analyzable summaries –How does the data group itself? Identify the patterns Report negative results as a limitation of your study –you may need to re-check your experiment or modify your hypothesis –How does it affect the overall outcome of study? What information does the new finding indicate? You may insert tables, figures and charts—but need to explain meaning in text. Brief, precise, and clear Write in past tense and / or passive voice

15. Parts of the Scientific Paper: Discussion (1) Answers question: Q 4: What does it mean? Procedure: describe and analyze (explain what the data means): –Briefly summarize the results –Explain what the data tell you? –Explain what is the relationship among the pieces of data?— What patterns are formed (how does the data group itself)? What do the patterns indicate? –What do the results fail to tell you? (that was significant for your study) –What were the limitations of the study? What were the flaws? –What are the implications drawn from the data? –What are the benefits? Social? Theoretical? Economic?

16. Parts of the Scientific Paper: Discussion (2) Future work: It could be derived from the limitations of the study that suggest future work; It is important that you identify an important resulting topic from your study—even if you do not do it. It helps to identify you with a potentially significant new trend.

17. Parts of the Scientific Paper: Conclusion (recommended) Summarize and highlight the significance of your study : Did you stake out a new field? Discover a new method? Develop a new theoretical model? What are its implications? Benefits? Emphasize the benefits, the practical and theoretical applications of your work; What are the limitations with which you had to work; How did you overcome them? Brief memorable last statement about YOUR contribution emphasizing the significance of your results

18. Parts of the Scientific Paper: Acknowledgements Show scholarly courtesy (you are a lady / gentleman and scholar); Acknowledge people who gave you technical assistance or intellectual guidance such as your adviser; Financial assistance: grants, fellowships, regional development funds: name of fund, Name, English translation, and fund number. Example: ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The research and writing of this paper was sponsored by the European Regional Development Fund, Project Jauzi (Eng. Trans.: New User behavioural interpretation algorithms to facilitate an efficient transfer of knowledge within an e-ecosystem) Nr. 2013/0071/2DP/2.1.1.1.0/13/APIA/VIAA/023

19. Parts of the Scientific Paper: References Reference Lists / Citations (within text) –Thomas Reuters claims over 6,000 formats EndNote Style Finder http://endnote.com/downloads/styles –Styles share many elements in common; revision among styles not difficult; –N.B. (Nota Bene)—Use an accepted professional format; NEVER make-up your own style. The Most popular styles –Harvard (Universal) –APA – social science, psychology, education –IEEE – Engineering, Computer Science Links to reference style formats: Harvard, IEEE, and other styles http://guides.lib.monash.edu/citing-referencing/ieee APA and other styles http://www2.liu.edu/cwis/cwp/library/workshop/citation.htm

20. Parts of the Scientific Paper: Tables and Figures (1) Select only representative data to illustrate your hypothesis. There are two types of illustrations in scientific papers Tables –A Table is a list of numbers identified with a title that appears in a column; –It present data with a high degree of accuracy, including parallel data Figures –Figures include most illustrations: diagrams, graphs, photographs, drawings –Graphical and visual presentations of results –Show trends, patterns and relationships between identified values Choosing tables or figures –What is your message and how to you wish to convey it? –How will your data best be communicated? How to select illustrations for your text: –Ask: Is it pertinent? –Unessential data presented in Tables and Figures is misleading, poor science, and will be struck down by editors. It may result in the rejection of your article.

21. Parts of the Scientific Paper: Tables and Figures (2) Each Table and Figure is identified with a number, examples: –Table 3 Table number appears ABOVE the Table –Figure 5. or Fig. 5. Figure number appears Below the figure Legend –Each Table and figure is accompanied by a legend. –The Legend is caption or inscription that describes each table and figure. Be brief, be precise, be to the point. Each Table and Figure MUST be identified in the text by number and briefly described. Tables and Figures will appear in following sections of Scientific Paper: –Methods and Materials –Results –Less likely Discussion –Probably never in Conclusion

22. Parts of the Scientific Paper: Appendix / Appendices (pl.) Supplementary additional materials, –Most likely will appear in Dissertation –Includes supplementary materials, charts, questionnaires, survey data, computer programs. –May be included articles AFTER references –If more than one appendix, designate Appendix A, Appendix B or Appendix I, Appendix II. Organize by topics –N.B. Journal space limitations—you may need to pay for extra pages; –Some journals allow supplemental materials to be published on its webpages and even encourage it.

23. The Scientific Paper: Summary of Main IMRAD Sections (1)* Title Author (s) Key Words Abstract Clearly reflects content and creates interest; Name (s), affiliations and e-mails of author(s). Indicate corresponding author with an asterisk (*) Main terms to access your work; used for indexing and online retrieval; Concise statement of your paper meant to attract wider pubic attention. * Summary based on Nair and Nair, 2014, p. 25.

24. The Scientific Paper: Summary of Main IMRAD Sections (2) Introduction Methods and Materials Results Discussion Answers question why paper needs to be written and how you plan to do it. How you plan to do it—the details: the procedural and material aspects of your research. What did you find? What is your data? Just give it straight. No discussion. What does it mean? Interpretation of your results. What’s next? Future work.

25. The Scientific Paper: Summary of Main IMRAD Sections (3) Conclusion (recommended) Acknowledgements References Appendix (Appendices) Summarizes the highlights and indicate the significance of your study. Who helped? What did they do? Funding sources? Give name of fund with English translation and no. (if there is one); A detailed list of books and materials cited in your text using a standard format (Harvard, IEEE, publisher’s requirements) Supplementary data and materials that are significant to your study.

26. IMRAD and the Dissertation: Possible Structure (1)** Chapters 1.Introduction 2.Literature Review 3.Materials and Methods 4.Results 5.Discussion 6.Conclusions **McMahon 2005

27. IMRAD Dissertation Chapters Compiled from Research articles** Introduction Background to the Study linking all articles Research Article 1 –Introduction –Literature Review –Materials and Methods –Results –Discussion –Conclusions Research Article 2 – Introduction – Literature Review – Materials and Methods – Results – Discussion – Conclusions Research Article 3 – Introduction – Literature Review – Materials and Methods – Results – Discussion – Conclusions Conclusions (overall) **McMahon 2005

28. Traditional Dissertation Structure** 1.Introduction 2. Topic 1 3. Topic 2 4. Topic 3 5. Results / Discussion 6. Conclusions **McMahon 2005

29. Is IMRAD for you? KENNETH MAHRER argues: IMRaD is misguided*** Argues for DSB (Definition, Solution, Benefits) method; What are the benefits of each approach (IMRAD and DSB)? Are there weak points in either or both of these approaches? Are they that different? Explain. Can you combine them? Explain. What works for you? Explain. ***Mahrer. 2000, p.162.

30. Problems with English? Why is English Hard*** We’ll begin with a box, and the plural is boxes. But the plural of ox should be oxen, not oxes. Then one fowl is goose, but two are called geese. Yet the plural of moose should never be meeses. You may find a lone mouse or a whole lot of mice. But the plural of house is houses, not hise. If the plural of man is always called men. Why shouldn’t the plural of pan be called pen? The cow in the plural may be cows or kine. But I give you a boot … would a pair be called beet? If one is a tooth and the whole set are teeth, Why shouldn’t the plural of booth be called beeth? If the singular is this and the plural is these, Should the plural of kiss be nicknamed kese? Then one may be that, and three may be those, Yet the plural of hat would never be hose. We speak of a brother, and also of brethren, But though you say mother, we never say methren. The masculine pronouns are he, his, and him. But imagine the feminine she, shis, and shim! So our English, I think you will all agree, Is the trickiest language you ever did see! ***Cited in Maher, 2000, p. 162)

31. Good Luck! Make the best choices that suit you! – And Keep on Trucking! There is a rainbow at the end.

32. Citations in Slides McMahon, N. (2005) Structuring and Writing a Dissertation, http://www.niallmcmahon.com/planning_a_thesis.html (accessed 28.07.2015) http://www.niallmcmahon.com/planning_a_thesis.html Mahrer, R, K. D. (2000) The DSB method—Persuasive writing made simpler, THE LEADING EDGE, February, pp.162-164. http://cgiss.boisestate.edu/~billc/Writing/dsb_method.pdf (accessed 28.07.2015) http://cgiss.boisestate.edu/~billc/Writing/dsb_method.pdf Nair, P. and Nair, V. (2014) Organization of a Research Paper: The IMRAD Format Scientific Writing and Communication in Agriculture and Natural Resources, CH: Springer, pp. 13-25. (pdf) (accessed 28.07.2015)