1. Introduction to Psycholgy

2. Common Misconceptions Psychology is about giving advice Psychology is common sense Psychology is the study of mental illness

3. The “Truth” About Psychology It’s more than just giving people advice Around 55% counsel or treat clients but also must do research Psychology is rooted in scientific study and research

4. Another truth about psychology It is science. Psychologists test ideas using the scientific method Research findings don’t always confirm everyday observations Ideas and observations must stand up to scientific scrutiny

5. What’s Next: Psychologists at Work What is the science of psychology? What are the major specialties in the field of psychology? Where do psychologists work?

6. Psychology The scientific study of behavior and mental processes

7. Subfields of Psychology: Psychology’s Family Tree Separated by the basic questions about behavior that they address: How do our social networks affect behavior? How do people sense, perceive, learn, and think about the world? What are the sources of change and stability in behavior across a life span? How do psychological factors affect physical and mental health? How do our social networks affect behavior?

8. How Do Our Social Networks Affect Behavior? Social Psychology The study of how people’s thoughts, feelings, and actions are affected by others

9. You Tube Connection

10. How Do Our Social Networks Affect Behavior? What Are the Biological Foundations of Behavior?  Behavioral Neuroscience  Examines how the brain and the nervous system, in addition to other biological processes, determine behavior

11. How Do Our Social Networks Affect Behavior? Cross-Cultural Psychology  Investigates the similarities and differences in psychological functioning in and across various cultures and ethnic groups (e.g., universal emotions)

12. Forensic Psychology Studies criminal behavior and legal system Analyze data to make scientific conclusions

13. How Do People Sense, Perceive, Learn, and Think about the World?  Experimental Psychology  Studies the processes of sensing, perceiving, learning, and thinking about the world  Subspecialty Cognitive psychology Studies higher mental processes such as thinking, memory, reasoning, problem solving, judging, decision making, and language

14. What Are the Sources of Change and Stability in Behavior Across the Life Span? Developmental Psychology  Studies how people grow and change from the moment of conception through death Personality Psychology  Focuses on the consistency in people’s behavior over time and the traits that differentiate one person from another

15. Health Psychology  Explores the relationship between psychological factors and physical ailments or disease Clinical Psychology  Deals with the study, diagnosis, and treatment of psychological disorders Counseling Psychology  Deals with the study, diagnosis, and treatment of psychological disorders. Focuses primarily on educational, social, and career-adjustment problems Our Bodies, Our Minds

16. Expanding Psychology’s Frontiers Evolutionary Psychology  Considers how behavior is influenced by our genetic inheritance from our ancestors Behavioral Genetics  Seeks to understand how we might inherit certain behavioral traits and how the environment influences whether we actually display such traits

17. Expanding Psychology’s Frontiers Clinical Neuropsychology  Unites the areas of neuroscience and clinical psychology  Focuses on the origin of psychological disorders in biological factors

18. 18 Figure 1 of Chapter 1 Where Psychologists Work

19. Psychologists: A Portrait By 2010 women will outnumber men in the field Vast majority of psychologists in the United States are white Six percent are members of racial minority groups  Limits diversity of the field

20. 20 The Education of a Psychologist PhD  Doctor of philosophy PsyD  Doctor of psychology MA or MS  Master’s degree BA or BS  Bachelor’s degree

21. What’s Next: A Science Evolves: The Past, the Present, and the Future What are the origins of psychology? What are the major approaches in contemporary psychology?

22. A Science Evolves: The Past, the Present, and the Future What are psychology’s key issues and controversies? What is the future of psychology likely to hold?

23. The Roots of Psychology Structuralism  Wilhelm Wundt  Focused on uncovering the fundamental mental components of perception, consciousness, thinking, emotions, and other kinds of mental states and activities  Wundt and his students used an experimental version of introspection -- the careful observation of one’s perceptions -- and outlined some pretty specific details to the method:  1. The observer must know when the experience begins and ends. 2. The observer must maintain "strained attention." 3. The phenomenon must bear repetition. 4. And the phenomenon must be capable of variation -- i.e. experimentation.  Regarding sensations, for example, it was determined that there are seven "qualities" of sensations: The visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, cutaneous, kinesthetic, and organic.

24. Class Demonstration Introspection and the Lollipop

25. The Roots of Psychology Functionalism  William James  Functionalists are interested in why and how our thoughts and feelings lead us to behave as we do.  Functionalism focuses on studying the functions/purposes that mental processes serve in enabling people to adapt to their environment.  Stream of consciousness

26. The Roots of Psychology Gestalt Psychology  Emphasized how perception is organized  “The whole is different from the sum of its parts”  Two persons can be perceived, an old woman and a young woman.  As you study the picture you may be able to change your perceptions from one figure to the other in order to appreciate the process of emerging figures and receding grounds as it occurs in your everyday life.  To arbitrarily change one's focus is an experiment in perception.  Such a change in perceptual focus represents more than a trick of the eye.  The perception of a figure emerging from the ground is a consequence of an internal choice that, although momentary, involves a complex of internal processes.

27. Today’s Perspectives

28. The Neuroscience Perspective: Blood, Sweat, and Fears Neuroscience Perspective  Considers how people and nonhumans function biologically

29. The Psychodynamic Perspective: Understanding the Inner Person Psychodynamic Perspective  Sigmund Freud  Behavior is motivated by inner forces and conflicts about which we have little awareness or control.

30. The Behavioral Perspective: Observing the Outer Person Behavioral Perspective  John B. Watson  B.F. Skinner  Focuses on observable behavior that can be measured objectively

31. The Cognitive Perspective: Identifying the Roots of Understanding Cognitive Perspective  Focuses on how people think, understand, and know about the world  Information processing

32. The Humanistic Perspective: The Unique Qualities of the Human Species Humanistic Perspective  Carl Rogers  Abraham Maslow  Emphasis is on free will  Achieving self-fulfillment

33. What’s Next: Key Issues Nature (Heredity) versus Nurture (Environment) Conscious versus Unconscious causes of behavior Observable Behavior versus Internal Mental Processes Free Will versus Determinism Individual Differences versus Universal Principles

34. Key Issues

35. Psychology’s Future Psychology will become increasingly specialized and new perspectives will evolve. Neuroscientific approaches will likely influence other branches of psychology. Influence on issues of public interest will grow. Issues of diversity will become more important to psychologists providing services and doing research.

36. What’s Next: Research in Psychology What is the scientific method? How do psychologists use theory and research to answer questions of interest? What research methods do psychologists use? How do psychologists establish cause-and-effect relationships using experiments?

37. 37 Scientific Method Approach used by psychologists to systematically acquire knowledge and understanding about behavior and other phenomena of interest Four main steps  1. Identifying questions of interest  2. Formulating an explanation  3. Carrying out research designed to support or refute the explanation  4. Communicating the findings

38. Scientific Method

39. Theories: Specifying Broad Explanations Theories  Broad explanations and predictions concerning phenomena of interest  In science, a theory is an explanation that generally is accepted to be true.

40. Hypotheses: Crafting Testable Predictions Hypothesis  Prediction stated in a way that allows it to be tested  Stems from theories  A hypothesis is an educated guess, based on observation. Usually, a hypothesis can be supported or refuted through experimentation or more observation. A hypothesis can be disproven, but not proven to be true.

41. Class Participation Hypothesizing at the airport. Generate hypotheses when observing this couple in plane to the Bahamas

42. Hypotheses: Crafting Testable Predictions Operational Definition  Translation of a hypothesis into specific, testable procedures that can be measured and observed  There is an old saying that you can never be too rich. When it comes to operational definitions, you can never be too detailed. An operational definition identifies one or more specific observable conditions or events and then tells the researcher how to measure that event. Typically, there are several operational definition possibilities for variables and values. The operation chosen will often have an immediate impact on the course of the research, especially the findings.  Operational definitions must be valid -- do they measure what they are supposed to measure? It is easy to develop definitions that are easily operational, but which lack meaning and appropriateness.  Operational definitions must be reliable -- the results should be the same when done by different people or by one person at different times.

43. What’s Next: Descriptive Research Research  Systematic inquiry aimed at the discovery of new knowledge  Descriptive Research  Archival Research  Naturalistic Observation  Survey Research  Case Study

44. Descriptive Research Archival Research  Existing data, such as census documents, college records, and newspaper clippings, are examined to test a hypothesis.  Example: Looking at college records of students’ grades to see if there are gender differences in academic performance

45. Descriptive Research Naturalistic Observation  An investigator observes some naturally occurring behavior and does not make a change in the situation  Example: Sitting in on a class to see how frequently male students speak up in class, as opposed to how frequently female students speak up

46. Descriptive Research Survey Research  A sample of people chosen to represent a larger group of interest (a population) is asked a series of questions about their behavior, thoughts, or attitudes.  Example: Having a sample of people (an equal number of male and female students) fill out a questionnaire about their study habits and grades

47. Descriptive Research The Case Study  An in-depth, intensive investigation of a single individual or a small group  Often includes psychological testing Example: Investigating an academically successful student with dyslexia to find out what specific behaviors led to his academic success. The findings of this investigation could then be used to help other students with dyslexia do better in school.

48. What’s Next: Correlational Research Two sets of variables are examined to determine whether they are associated, or correlated.  Variables  Behaviors, events, or other characteristics that can change, or vary, in some way  Correlation coefficient  Positive  Negative  Example: Comparing the amount of time spent studying to students’ performance on a test to see if the amount of time students studied affected their test scores

50. Correlation Coefficients Number indicates strength of relationship -1.00 to +1.00 Stronger correlations indicate greater relationship (away from 0), closer to 0 the weaker the relationship Positive correlation As one variable increases the other increases Negative correlation As one variable increases other decreases; inverse relationship

52. Cautions about correlations Does not show cause and effect relationship Only shows that variables have a relationship, not what is the nature of that relationship Relationship may be caused by a third variable

53. What’s Next: Experimental Research A researcher investigates the relationship between two or more variables by deliberately changing one variable in a controlled situation and observing the effects of that change on other aspects of the situation.  Experimental manipulation

54. Experimental Research Experimental Groups and Control Groups  Treatment  Manipulation implemented by the experimenter  Experimental group  Receives a treatment  Control group  Receives no treatment  Rules out other reasons for change

55. Experimental Research Independent and Dependent Variables  Independent The condition that is manipulated by an experimenter  Dependent The variable that is measured and is expected to change as a result of changes caused by the experimenter’s manipulation of the independent variable  Confounding Problematic variables, variables that may influence relationship-Need to control for these

56. Experimental Research Random Assignment of Participants  To make the experiment a valid test of the hypothesis Random Assignment to Condition  Participants are assigned to different experimental groups or conditions on the basis of chance.

57. 57 Figure 6 of Chapter 1 Designing an Experiment

58. 58 Experimental Research Significant Outcome  Using statistical analysis, researchers can determine whether a numeric difference is a real difference or is merely due to chance. Replication  Repeating experiment  Meta-analysis

59. Necessary Conditions for Experiments Variables must be controlled or manipulated Participants are randomly assigned within the study Then and only then can it show cause and effect

60. Review: Controlling/Manipulating Types of variables Independent (IV) Manipulated variable; effect Dependent (DV) Variable that measures results of having manipulated the IV; effect Confounding Problematic variables, variables that may influence relationship Need to control for these

61. Threats to Experimental Validity: Avoiding Experimental Bias Experimental Bias  Factors that distort the way the independent variable affects the dependent variable in an experiment  Experimenter expectations  Participant expectations Placebo

62. Willingness to make “risky predictions” Confirmation bias. Tendency to look for or pay attention only to information that confirms one’s own belief. Principle of Falsifiability. A scientific theory must make predictions that are specific enough to expose the theory to the possibility of disconfirmation; that is, the theory must predict not only what will happen, but also what will not happen.

63. Let’s Review

64. 64 See additional What’s Next: The Ethics of Research APA Code of Ethics

65. The History of Ethics THE NUREMBERG CODE [from Trials of War Criminals before the Nuremberg Military Tribunals under Control Council Law No. 10. Nuremberg, October 1946–April 1949. Washington, D.C.: U.S. G.P.O, 1949–1953.] 65

66. General Principles Their intent is to guide and inspire psychologists toward the very highest ethical ideals of the profession. Principle A: Beneficence and Nonmaleficence Principle B: Fidelity and Responsibility Principle C: Integrity Principle D: Justice Principle E: Respect for People's Rights and Dignity

67. The Ethics of Research  Types of psychological research conducted prior to the development of Institutional Review Boards  Emotions. Ax (1953) conducted a study to compare the experience of fear and anger. In the anger condition, the experimenter criticized the participant and roughly adjusted the electrodes used for measurement; in the fear condition, the polygraph “malfunctioned” emitting sparks, and the experimenters made comments in front of the participant regarding the presence of a dangerous high voltage short circuit.  Conditioned Fear. Watson & Raynor (1920) demonstrated a conditioned emotional response (fear) by 11-month old Little Albert, an unsuspecting infant placed in Watson’s care while his mother was at work. In this study, Watson used the principles of classical conditioning described by Pavlov to demonstrate that fear can be conditioned to a previous neutral stimulus. 

68. The Ethics of Research  Types of psychological research conducted prior to the development of Institutional Review Boards  Obedience. Milgram’s (1974) experimental research examined obedience to authority. Participants, who served as teachers in an apparent study on learning, administered “lethal” shocks to the learners based upon the command of the experimenter. Milgrim’s

69. 69 The Ethics of Research Informed Consent  Participants sign a document affirming that they have been told the basic outlines of the study and are aware of what their participation will involve.  They are informed about any risks the experiment may hold and the fact that their participation is purely voluntary.  They also are told that they may terminate their participation at any time.

70. You Tube Connection

71. Should Animals Be Used in Research? Procedures that cause animals distress are permitted only when an alternative procedure is not available and when the research is justified by its prospective value. Researchers are required to promote the psychological well-being of some research animals, such as primates.

72. 72

73. Social Anxiety Symptoms of Social Anxiety The fear of being scrutinized, judged, or embarrassed in public. You may be afraid that people will think badly of you or that you won’t measure up in comparison to others. And even though you probably realize that your fears of being judged are at least somewhat irrational and overblown, you still can’t help feeling anxious. Return

74. Let’s look at it from different types of research Descriptive Research –Archival –Naturalistic Observation –Case Study –Survey Correlational Research Experimental Research

75. 5 Minutes and 23 seconds Paper

76. The Nazis are known for using human subjects in their medical experiments to research such fields as medicine and genetics. These unethical experiments were never short on subjects because the Nazis forced the prisoners in concentration camps to participate. These Nazi medical experiments usually subjected these prisoners to a great deal of pain and, in many cases, led to their deaths. Hypothermia To prepare the troops for the extreme cold, Nazi doctors conducted experiments on how extreme cold affected the human body and on how to resuscitate someone after someone succumbed to such temperatures. Often, the same subject would be frozen and heated over and over again during one testing session. Another experiment was to heat water to near boiling temperatures and then forcefully rrigating the body by running the water through the stomach, bladder, and intestines. The medical field benefitted from this research but it is argued by some that the findings from these experiments should NOT be used to improve care at present because these findings came from unethical experimentation. What is your opinion? Should we take the findings from unethical experiments to inform our work now or should we NOT because these findings came from unethical experimentation?