1. Political Transformations: Empires & Encounters, 1450-1750
Chapter 13
Short Answer Possibilities

2. European Empire Building
Europeans at all levels of the social hierarchy were highly motivated to gain access to Eurasian commerce
Thus all groups in European society had incentive to participate in empire building after 1200
Rival monarchs
Nobles (poor & rich)
Competing merchants
Commoners
Christian missionaries
Persecuted minorities

3. European Empire Building
Europeans were much closer to the Americas than their potential competition from Asia
Adoption of improved seafaring technology from the Islamic and Chinese worlds of Indian Ocean commerce made trans-Atlantic travel much easier
Highly organized European states and trading companies
Able to mobilize human & material resources
Able to finance exploration & settlement

4. European Empire Building
European ironworking technology, gunpowder, weapons, and horses were unknown to and unparalleled in the Americas
Divisions within and between societies in the Americas provided information and allies for Europeans
European diseases and germs decimated societies in the Americas because Native Americans had no immunity to them

5. Economic Foundation of Colonial Rule in Mexico and Peru
In both Mexico and Peru, the basis of colonial economies were commercial agriculture and mining for precious metals
The work was performed by forced labor and cheap wage labor from the indigenous populations

6. Economic Foundation of Colonial Rule in Mexico and Peru
The economic base of agriculture and mining led to a distinctive social hierarchy that mimicked the Spanish class system
It also incorporated Native Americans, Africans, and the growing number of racially mixed peoples

7. Economic Foundation of Colonial Rule in Mexico and Peru
The major social groups in the former Aztec and Incan lands were:
Spaniards
Mestizos (European & Native American mix)
Native Americans
African slaves and freemen were far less numerous in Mexico and Peru than elsewhere in the Americas
Society was dominated by Europeans, but with a more fluid and culturally diverse society than the racially rigid societies of North America

8. Differences in Plantation Societies
In Brazil and the Caribbean there was a continuous importation of slaves from Africa
More slaves were voluntarily set free by their owners than in North America
Free blacks and those of mixed descent had greater opportunities than their counterparts in North America

9. Differences in Plantation Societies
In North America there was less racial mixing and less willingness to recognize children of race mixing as a distinct class in society
Slavery was less harsh in North America than in the sugar colonies
By 1750 slaves in North America had become self-reproducing
By 1850 nearly all North American slaves had been born in the New World

10. Differences in Plantation Societies
North America
Brazil and Caribbean
Any African ancestry at all made a person black
Race was the only criteria determining class status
An individual of African and non-African ancestry was considered to fall into another mixed race category, not black.
Color was only one piece of class status, along with economic standing and education

11. Creating a Russian Empire
Russia’s expansion into the Steppes to the south and east of the Russian heartland (Muscovy) was initially for the purpose of security from pastoral warlike people from the steppes
Frequently raided Russian Territory
Sold Russians off into captivity
Tatars exacted tribute from Moscow & ruled over Russia

12. Creating a Russian Empire
Russian expansion into Siberia was driven by worldwide demand for furs
Leaders (Tsars after 1547) cited the need to protect the frontiers for the Russian people, to enhance the power of the Russian state, and the need to bring Christianity, civilization and education to the Russian people as reason to continue to expand

13. Chinese Empire Building
China vastly enlarged the size of its territory driven by security concerns
This brought a large number of non-Chinese people into the empire
Conquered areas of Central Asia were governed through the use of local nobles separately from the rest of China
Chinese officials did not want to assimilate local people into Chinese culture
They did show a great deal of respect for the Mongolian, Tibetan, and Muslim cultures over which they ruled

14. Mughal Attitudes & Policies Towards Hindus
Akbar recognized Hindus made up the majority of the population of the Mughal Empire
He acted deliberately to accommodate Hindus
Allowed the Hindu princesses he married to keep their faith
Incorporated Hindus into the political & military elite
Supported the building of Hindu temples
Imposed an empire wide policy of toleration
Removed the special tax on non-Muslims
Promoted a cult of the empire that drew upon Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, & Zoroastrianism

15. Mughal Attitudes & Policies Towards Hindus
Aurangzeb reversed Akbar’s policies of accommodation
Banned Hindu music and dance at his court
Destroyed some Hindu temples
Reinstituted the special tax for non-Muslims
Posted “censors of public morals” in large cities to enforce Islamic law
Forbade the practice of Sati

16. Ottoman Empire Represented a military threat to Europe
Important trading partner for Europe
Impressed European intellectuals because of its religious tolerance
Allied with France against the common Austrian Hapsburg enemy