1. Chapter 10 Behavioral Objectives

2. Types of Objectives Educational/Instructional Objectives: content-oriented, teacher-centered outcomes of the education process in reference to an aspect of a program or a total program of study Behavioral/Learning Objectives: action- oriented, learner-centered outcomes of the teaching/learning process

3. Definition of Terms Goals: the final outcome of what is achieved at the end of the teaching– learning process Objective: a behavior describing the performance that learners should be able to exhibit to be considered competent

4. Differences between Goals and Objectives

5. Responsibility for Establishing Goals and Objectives Setting of goals and objectives must be a mutual decision-making process between the teacher and the learner.Setting of goals and objectives must be a mutual decision-making process between the teacher and the learner. Both parties must “buy into” and participate in establishing predetermined objectives and goals prior to initiating the teaching/learning process.Both parties must “buy into” and participate in establishing predetermined objectives and goals prior to initiating the teaching/learning process. Blending what the learner wants to learn and what the teacher has assessed the learner needs to know provides for a mutually accountable, respectful, and fulfilling educational experience.Blending what the learner wants to learn and what the teacher has assessed the learner needs to know provides for a mutually accountable, respectful, and fulfilling educational experience.

6. The Debate about Using Behavioral Objectives Arguments Against superfluoussuperfluous reductionisticreductionistic time-consumingtime-consuming pedagogicpedagogic stifles creativitystifles creativity interferes with freedom to learninterferes with freedom to learn impossible to be inclusiveimpossible to be inclusive

7. The Debate about Using Behavioral Objectives (cont’d) Arguments for keeps teaching learner-centeredkeeps teaching learner-centered communicates plan to otherscommunicates plan to others helps learners stay on trackhelps learners stay on track organizes educational approachorganizes educational approach ensures that process is deliberateensures that process is deliberate tailors teaching to learner’s needstailors teaching to learner’s needs focuses attention on learnerfocuses attention on learner orients teacher and learner to outcomesorients teacher and learner to outcomes

8. Three Major Advantages to Writing Objectives Provides basis for selection and design of instructional content, methods, and materialsProvides basis for selection and design of instructional content, methods, and materials Provides learner with means to organize efforts toward accomplishing objectivesProvides learner with means to organize efforts toward accomplishing objectives Allows for determination as to the extent that objectives have been accomplishedAllows for determination as to the extent that objectives have been accomplished

9. Writing Behavioral Objectives Three important characteristics: 1. Performance—describes what the learner is expected to be able to do 2. Condition—describes the situation under which behavior will be observed 3. Criterion—describes how well or with what accuracy the learner must be able to perform

10. The Four Step Approach To link a behavioral objective together, the following three steps are recommended: 1. Identify the testing situation (condition). 2. State the learner and the learner’s behavior (performance). 3. State the performance level (criterion). 4. State how well the learner will perform the criterion (percent accuracy). 4. State how well the learner will perform the criterion (percent accuracy).

11. The ABCD Rule A—AudienceA—Audience B—BehaviorB—Behavior C—Condition (under what circumstances)C—Condition (under what circumstances) D—Degree (how much, to what extent)D—Degree (how much, to what extent)

12. Common Mistakes When Writing Objectives describing what the instructor will do rather than what the learner will dodescribing what the instructor will do rather than what the learner will do including more than one behavior in a single objectiveincluding more than one behavior in a single objective forgetting to include all three characteristicsforgetting to include all three characteristics using performance terms subject to many interpretations and that are not action- orientedusing performance terms subject to many interpretations and that are not action- oriented

13. Common Mistakes (cont’d) writing an unattainable, unrealistic objectivewriting an unattainable, unrealistic objective writing objectives unrelated to stated goalwriting objectives unrelated to stated goal cluttering an objective with unnecessary informationcluttering an objective with unnecessary information making an objective too general so that the outcome is not clearmaking an objective too general so that the outcome is not clear

14. Taxonomy of Objectives Behavior is defined according to type (domain category) and level of complexity (simple to complex). Three Types of Learning Domains 1. Cognitive—the “thinking” domain 2. Affective—the “feeling” domain 3. Psychomotor—the “skills” domain

15. Writing SMART Objectives S—SpecificS—Specific M—MeasurableM—Measurable A—AchievableA—Achievable R—RealisticR—Realistic T—TimelyT—Timely

16. Complexity of Domain Levels Objectives in each domain are classified in a taxonomic form of hierarchy into low (most simple), medium (moderately difficult), and high (most complex) levels of behavior. Cognitive Levels Cognitive Levels knowledge evaluation knowledge evaluation Affective Levels Affective Levels receiving characterization receiving characterization Psychomotor Psychomotor perception origination perception origination

17. Teaching in the Cognitive Domain Teaching in the Cognitive Domain Learning in this domain involves acquisition of information based on the learner’s intellectual abilities and thinking processes. Methods most often used to stimulate learning in the cognitive domain include:Methods most often used to stimulate learning in the cognitive domain include: - lecture - one-to-one instruction - computer-assisted instruction

18. Teaching in the Cognitive Domain (cont’d) Cognitive-domain learning is the traditional focus of most teaching.Cognitive-domain learning is the traditional focus of most teaching. Cognitive knowledge is an essential prerequisite for learning affective and psychomotor skills.Cognitive knowledge is an essential prerequisite for learning affective and psychomotor skills.

19. Teaching in the Affective Domain Learning in this domain involves an increasing internalization or commitment to feelings; affective learning involves the degree to which feelings or attitudes are incorporated into one’s personality or value system Methods most often used to stimulate learning in the affective domain include:Methods most often used to stimulate learning in the affective domain include: - group discussion - role-modeling - simulation gaming - questioning - role-playing - role-playing

20. Teaching in the Affective Domain (cont’d) Nurse educators are encouraged to attend to the needs of the whole person by recognizing that learning is subjective and values driven. More time in teaching needs to focus on exploring and clarifying learner feelings, emotions, and attitudes.More time in teaching needs to focus on exploring and clarifying learner feelings, emotions, and attitudes.

21. Teaching in the Psychomotor Domain Learning in this domain involves acquiring fine and gross motor abilities with increasing complexity of neuromuscular coordination. Learning in this domain involves acquiring fine and gross motor abilities with increasing complexity of neuromuscular coordination. Methods most often used to stimulate learning in the psychomotor domain include:Methods most often used to stimulate learning in the psychomotor domain include: - demonstration - return demonstration - simulation - gaming - self-instruction

22. Factors Influencing Psychomotor Skill Acquisition The amount of practice required to learn a new skill varies with the individual, depending upon such things as: - readiness to learn - motivation to learn - past experience - health status

23. Factors Influencing Psychomotor Skill Acquisition (cont’d) - environmental stimuli - anxiety level - developmental stage - practice session length

24. Development of Teaching Plans Predetermined goals and objectives serve as a basis for developing a teaching plan.Predetermined goals and objectives serve as a basis for developing a teaching plan. Mutually agreed upon goals and objectives clarify what the learner is to learn and what the teacher is to teach.Mutually agreed upon goals and objectives clarify what the learner is to learn and what the teacher is to teach.

25. Reasons to Construct Teaching Plans Reasons to Construct Teaching Plans 1. Ensures a logical approach to teaching and keeps instruction on target. 2. Communicates in writing an action plan for the learner, teacher, and other providers. 3. Serves as a legal document that indicates a plan is in place and the extent of progress toward implementation.

26. Teaching in the Psychomotor Domain (cont’d) Psychomotor skill development is very egocentric and requires learner concentration.Psychomotor skill development is very egocentric and requires learner concentration. Asking questions that demand a cognitive or affective response during psychomotor learning interferes with psychomotor performance.Asking questions that demand a cognitive or affective response during psychomotor learning interferes with psychomotor performance. The ability to perform a skill is not equivalent to learning a skill (performance is transitory; learning is more permanent).The ability to perform a skill is not equivalent to learning a skill (performance is transitory; learning is more permanent). “Practice makes perfect”—repetition leads to perfection and reinforcement of behavior.“Practice makes perfect”—repetition leads to perfection and reinforcement of behavior.

27. Basic Elements of a Teaching Plan PurposePurpose Goal statementGoal statement Objectives (sub-objectives)Objectives (sub-objectives) Content outlineContent outline Methods of teachingMethods of teaching Time allotmentTime allotment Resources for instructionResources for instruction EvaluationEvaluation

28. The Major Criterion for Judging a Teaching Plan Internal consistency exists when you can answer “yes” to the following questions: - Does the plan facilitate a relationship between its parts? - Do all 8 elements of the plan “hang together”?

29. The Major Criterion for Judging a Teaching Plan (cont’d) - Is the identified domain of learning in each objective reflected in the purpose and goal, as well as across the plan, all the way through to the end process of evaluation?

30. Use of Learning Contracts Learning Contract: A written (formal) or verbal (informal) agreement between the teacher and the learner that delineates specific teaching and learning activities that are to occur within a certain time frame. Learning Contract: A written (formal) or verbal (informal) agreement between the teacher and the learner that delineates specific teaching and learning activities that are to occur within a certain time frame. Purpose of a Learning Contract Purpose of a Learning Contract to encourage learner’s active participationto encourage learner’s active participation to improve teacher–client communicationto improve teacher–client communication

31. Use of Learning Contracts (cont’d) Learning contracts: are an increasingly popular approach to teaching and learning.are an increasingly popular approach to teaching and learning. serve as an alternative and innovative technique that embodies the principles of adult learning.serve as an alternative and innovative technique that embodies the principles of adult learning. can be used with any audience of adult learners.can be used with any audience of adult learners.

32. Use of Learning Contracts (cont’d) empower the learner by emphasizing self-direction, mutual negotiation, and mutual evaluation of competency.empower the learner by emphasizing self-direction, mutual negotiation, and mutual evaluation of competency. stress shared accountability between the teacher and the learner.stress shared accountability between the teacher and the learner.

33. Components of the Learning Contract Four major components 1.Content—specifies precise behavioral objectives. 2. Evaluation—specifies criteria by which competencies will be judged.

34. Components of Learning Contract (cont’d) 3. Performance expectations—specify conditions by which learning will be achieved. 4. Time frame—specifies length of time needed for successful achievement of objectives.

35. The Concept of Learning Curve Learning Curve: A graphic depiction of changes in psychomotor performance at changes in psychomotor performance at different stages of practice during a different stages of practice during a specified time period specified time period Six stages of the theoretical learning curveSix stages of the theoretical learning curve The irregularity of individual learning curvesThe irregularity of individual learning curves

36. State of the Evidence Educational literature has plenty of evidence establishing the value and utility of behavioral objectives.Educational literature has plenty of evidence establishing the value and utility of behavioral objectives. Taxonomic hierarchy for categorizing behaviors has also been established.Taxonomic hierarchy for categorizing behaviors has also been established. Body of evidence on teaching plans is available.Body of evidence on teaching plans is available. Educational literature has new research on learning contracts, psychomotor skill acquisition, learning curve concept.Educational literature has new research on learning contracts, psychomotor skill acquisition, learning curve concept.

37. Summary Assessment of the learner is a prerequisite to formulating objectives.Assessment of the learner is a prerequisite to formulating objectives. Writing clear and concise behavioral objectives is fundamental to the education process.Writing clear and concise behavioral objectives is fundamental to the education process. Goals and objectives serve as a guide to planning, implementation, and evaluation of teaching and learning.Goals and objectives serve as a guide to planning, implementation, and evaluation of teaching and learning.

38. Chapter 11 Instructional Methods

39. Instructional Methods Definition –Techniques or approaches that the teacher uses to bring the learner in contact with the content to be learned

40. Instructional Methods Lecture Group Discussion One-to-One Instruction Role-playing Self-instruction Demonstration Return Demonstration Gaming Simulation Role-modeling

41. Lecture Definition –An instructional method in which the teacher verbally transmits information directly to groups of learners for the purpose of education. It is highly structured.

42. Lecture Advantages –Cost effective –Targets large groups –Useful for cognitive domain learning Limitations –Not individualized –Passive learners

43. Group Discussion Definition –An instructional method in which learners are together to exchange information, feelings, and opinions with each other and the teacher to achieve educational objectives

44. Group Discussion Advantages –Stimulates sharing of ideas and emotions –Active learners –Useful for cognitive and affective domains of learning Limitations –Shy member does not participate –Dominant member overwhelms the group –Highly diverse groups may have difficulty interacting

45. One-to-One Instruction Definition –An instructional method in which the teacher delivers personally designed instruction to a learner.

46. One-to-One Instruction Advantages –Active learner –Tailored to individual’s needs and goals –Useful for all three learning domains Limitations –Can be expensive because it is labor intensive –Isolates learner

47. Demonstration Definition –An instructional method in which the learner is shown by the teacher how to perform a particular skill

48. Demonstration Advantages –Previews exact skill for the learner –Useful for psychomotor domain learning Limitations –May be expensive because all learners need to easily visualize skill. This requires use of technology or small groups.

49. Return Demonstration Definition –An instructional method in which the learner attempts to perform a skill with cues from the teacher as needed

50. Return Demonstration Advantages –Active learner –Individual guidance –Useful for psychomotor domain learning Limitations –Viewing individual performance is labor intensive

51. Gaming Definition –An instructional method requiring the learner to participate in a competitive activity with preset rules to achieve an educational objective

52. Gaming Advantages –Active learner –Perceived as “fun” by many learners –Useful for all three domains of learning Limitations –Too competitive for some learners

53. Simulation Definition –An instructional method requiring creation of a hypothetical or artificial experience to engage the learner in an activity that reflects real-life conditions without the risk-taking consequences of an actual experience

54. Simulation Advantages –Active learners –Practice “reality” in a safe setting –Useful for cognitive and psychomotor domains of learning Limitations –Labor intensive –Costs of equipment

55. Role-Playing Definition –An instructional method where learners participate in an unrehearsed dramatization to elicit their feelings to achieve affective domain objectives

56. Role-Playing Advantages –Active learner –Develops “understanding” of others –Useful for affective domain learning Limitations –Learner can exaggerate or under- develop the role

57. Role-Modeling Definition –An instructional method in which the teacher “models” or exhibits behaviors that the learner may imitate or adopt as he or she is socialized into a role. Learning from role-modeling is called identification and emanates from socialization theories.

58. Role-Modeling Advantages –Helps with socialization into role –Useful for affective domain learning Limitations –Requires rapport between teacher and learner

59. Self-Instruction Definition –An instructional method to provide activities that guide the learner in independently achieving the educational objectives

60. Self-Instruction Advantages –Self-paced –Cost-effective –Consistent –Useful for cognitive domain learning Limitations –Learner may procrastinate –Requires literacy

61. Factors in Selection of Instructional Methods What are the predetermined objectives? What are the characteristics of the targeted audience? What resources are available? What are the teacher’s strengths and limitations?

62. Evaluation of Instructional Methods Did learners achieve their objectives? Was the activity accessible to targeted learners? Were available resources used efficiently? Did the method accommodate the learner’s needs, abilities, and style? Was the approach cost-effective?

63. Creative Techniques to Enhance Verbal Presentations Enthusiasm Humor Risk-taking Drama Problem-solving Role-modeling Anecdotes Technology

64. General Principles for All Teachers Give positive reinforcement. Project acceptance/sensitivity. Be organized, give direction. Elicit and provide feedback. Use questioning. Know your audience. Use repetition. Summarize key points.

65. Instructional Settings Healthcare setting Health-related setting Nonhealthcare setting

66. Sharing Resources Nurses in each of the setting types can establish a health education committee to coordinate health education programming, ensure effective use of resources, and avoid duplication of efforts.

67. Chapter 12 Instructional Materials

68. Instructional Materials Print and Nonprint Media Definition: the tangible substances and real objects used to help communicate information necessary for learningDefinition: the tangible substances and real objects used to help communicate information necessary for learning Purposes: to help the nurse educator deliver a message creatively and clearlyPurposes: to help the nurse educator deliver a message creatively and clearly

69. General Principles of Effectiveness Media should: Change behavior by influencing a gain in cognitive, affective, and/or psychomotor skillsChange behavior by influencing a gain in cognitive, affective, and/or psychomotor skills Enhance learning—no one tool is better than anotherEnhance learning—no one tool is better than another Complement the instructional methodsComplement the instructional methods

70. Media should (cont’d): Match available financial resourcesMatch available financial resources Be appropriate for physical environmentBe appropriate for physical environment Complement learners’ sensory abilities, developmental stage, and educational levelComplement learners’ sensory abilities, developmental stage, and educational level Impart accurate, current, valid and appropriate messagesImpart accurate, current, valid and appropriate messages Add diversity and information to learningAdd diversity and information to learning General Principles (cont’d)

71. Choosing Instructional Materials Major Variables to Consider Characteristics of the LearnerCharacteristics of the Learner –Physical abilities –Perceptual abilities –Literacy –Motivational level –Developmental stage –Learning style

72. Major Variables to Consider (cont’d) Characteristics of the MediaCharacteristics of the Media –Print –Nonprint Characteristics of the TaskCharacteristics of the Task –Learning domain –Complexity of behavior

73. Three Major Components of Instructional Materials Delivery SystemDelivery System –Definition: both the physical form and the hardware used to present materials –Examples of physical form and hardware Slides with projectorSlides with projector Videotapes with VCRsVideotapes with VCRs Computer software with computerComputer software with computer

74. Components (cont’d) ContentContent –Definition: actual information imparted to the learner –Selection criteria AccuracyAccuracy Appropriateness for skill determinationAppropriateness for skill determination ReadabilityReadability

75. Components (cont’d) PresentationPresentation –Definition: the form most important for selecting/developing instructional materials –Concrete to abstract continuum RealiaRealia Illusionary representationsIllusionary representations Symbolic representationsSymbolic representations

76. Types of Instructional Materials Written Materials AdvantagesAdvantages Available to learner in absence of teacherAvailable to learner in absence of teacher Widely acceptable, familiarWidely acceptable, familiar Readily available, relatively cheapReadily available, relatively cheap Convenient formConvenient form Learner controls rate of readingLearner controls rate of reading Content easily altered to target specific audiencesContent easily altered to target specific audiences

77. Written Materials (cont’d) DisadvantagesDisadvantages –Most abstract form of reality –Immediate feedback limited –Proper reading level essential for full usefulness –Less useful with low literate learners or visually or cognitively impaired learners –Inappropriate for illiterate learners

78. Written Materials— Commercially Prepared Factors to be consideredFactors to be considered –Who produced the item? Was there any input by healthcare professionals? –Can the item be previewed? –The price must be consistent with its educational value.

79. Written Materials—Instructor Composed Guidelines for Effective Writing Fit your own institution’s policies, procedures and equipment.Fit your own institution’s policies, procedures and equipment. Build in answers to those questions asked most frequently by your patients.Build in answers to those questions asked most frequently by your patients. Highlight points considered especially important by your healthcare team.Highlight points considered especially important by your healthcare team. Reinforce specific oral instructions and clarify difficult concepts.Reinforce specific oral instructions and clarify difficult concepts.

80. Guidelines for Effective Writing (cont’d) Keep words and sentences short. Use conversational style. Use active voice.Keep words and sentences short. Use conversational style. Use active voice. Use second person “you.”Use second person “you.” Most important information goes first.Most important information goes first. Do not use all-capital letters.Do not use all-capital letters. Use advance organizers.Use advance organizers. Emphasize key points with end review.Emphasize key points with end review.

81. Evaluating Printed Materials Consider: Nature of the audienceNature of the audience Literacy level requiredLiteracy level required Linguistic variety availableLinguistic variety available Brevity and clarityBrevity and clarity Layout and appearanceLayout and appearance Opportunity for repetitionOpportunity for repetition Concreteness and familiarityConcreteness and familiarity

82. Demonstration Materials Displays Advantages Advantages –Fast way to attract attention, make a point –Flexible –Portable –Reusable –Stimulate interest or ideas in observer –Can change or influence attitudes –Purchasable and/or can be made

83. Demonstration Materials Displays (cont’d) Disadvantages Disadvantages –Take up a lot of space –Time-consuming to prepare—often reused, outdated –May be overused –Unsuitable for large audiences

84. Demonstration Materials Posters as Popular Display Tools Consider: ColorColor White spaceWhite space GraphicsGraphics KISS principleKISS principle Titles/ScriptTitles/Script Balance of contentBalance of content

85. Demonstration Materials Models Advantages Advantages –Useful when real object is too small, too large, too expensive, unavailable, or too complex –Allows safe, hands-on practice –More active involvement by the learner with immediate feedback available –Readily available

86. Demonstration Materials Models (cont’d) DisadvantagesDisadvantages –May not be suitable for learner with poor abstraction abilities or for visually impaired –Some models fragile, expensive, bulky, or difficult to transport –Cannot be observed or manipulated by more than a few learners at a time

87. Demonstration Materials Three Specific Types of Models ReplicasReplicas –Examples: anatomical models, resuscitation dolls AnaloguesAnalogues –Examples: dialysis machines, computer models SymbolsSymbols –Examples: words, cartoons, formulas, signs

88. Audiovisual Materials Factors in selectionFactors in selection –Technical feasibility –Economic feasibility –Social/political acceptability –Instructor familiarity

89. Audiovisual Materials (cont’d) Projected Learning ResourcesProjected Learning Resources –Movies and filmstrips –Power Points –Overhead transparencies

90. Projected Learning Resources AdvantagesAdvantages –Most effectively used with groups –Especially beneficial with hearing-impaired, low-literate learners –Excellent media for use in teaching psychomotor skills

91. Projected Learning Resources (cont’d) DisadvantagesDisadvantages –Lack of flexibility due to static content of some forms –Some forms may be expensive –Requires darkened room for some forms –Requires special equipment for use

92. Audio Learning Resources Audiotapes, Radio, CDAudiotapes, Radio, CD AdvantagesAdvantages –Widely available –May be especially beneficial to visually- impaired, low literate learners –May be listened to repeatedly –Most forms practical, cheap, small, portable

93. Audio Learning Resources (cont’d) DisadvantagesDisadvantages –Relies only on sense of hearing –Some forms may be expensive –Lack of opportunity for interaction between instructor and learner

94. Video Learning Resources Purchased or self-made tapesPurchased or self-made tapes AdvantagesAdvantages –Widely used educational tool –Inexpensive; uses visual, auditory senses –Flexible for use with different audiences –Powerful tool for role-modeling and demonstration –Effective for teaching psychomotor skills

95. Video Learning Resources (cont’d) DisadvantagesDisadvantages –Quality of videotapes can deteriorate over time –Some commercial products may be expensive –Some purchased materials may be too long or inappropriate for audience

96. Telecommunications Learning Resources Telephones, Televisions AdvantagesAdvantages –Relatively inexpensive, widely available DisadvantagesDisadvantages –Complicated to set up interactive capability –Expensive to broadcast via satellite

97. Computer Learning Resources AdvantagesAdvantages –Interactive potential: quick feedback, retention –Potential database is enormous –Can individualize to suit different types of learners, different pace of learning –Time efficient

98. Computer Learning Resources (cont’d) DisadvantagesDisadvantages –Primary learning efficacy: cognitive domain less useful for attitude/behavior change or psychomotor skill development –Software and hardware expensive –Must be purchased –Limited use for most older adults, low literate learners, those with physical limitations

99. Evaluation Criteria for Selecting Materials ConsiderationsConsiderations –Learner characteristics –Task(s) to be achieved –Media available Evaluation ChecklistEvaluation Checklist –Content –Instructional design –Technical production – Packaging

100. State of the Evidence Performance is improved and learner satisfaction increased with visual reinforcement.Performance is improved and learner satisfaction increased with visual reinforcement. Distance learning is an increasingly viable option for learners.Distance learning is an increasingly viable option for learners.

101. Summary Instructional materials should be used to support learning by complementing and supplementing your teaching, not by substituting for it.