1. Chapter Seven Field Study Approaches

2. Field Studies Natural Settings Direct observations, “real” behaviour Test is whether they “ring true” to the reader and the person observed Qualitative research, an emphasis often on an accurate description

3. Participant Observation Studies Intense, usually long term, examination of a social group--it might be a particular culture, community, or group Method used in ethnographic & ethnonursing studies The researcher is involved in the daily lives of the group studied

4. Participant Observation Holistic, qualitative, understand the whole group immersion in the setting everyday lives of participants conclusions emerge from the setting (try to avoid preconceptions, let the observations guide you)

5. Participant Observation: Steps Gaining entry Establishing rapport Recording field notes –descriptions & interpretations of individuals, interactions, & events –exact time & location of observation should be recorded –emphasis should be placed on reflecting exactly what & how people say things

6. Field Notes Use 2 columns to distinguish between description & interpretation A wide column for description of observations A narrow column for interpretation of them Two kinds of interpretation –the subjects’ interpretation of observations –the observer’s interpretation of the same event

7. Field Notes Analyzing the observations –master field file (original complete file of raw data) –background, history file (subfile that contains info from the master file as well as from other sources) –analytic files (subfile related to a specific topic or relationship explored in the study) –key character files(Individual files on key players in the group studied) Writing the final report

8. In-Depth Interviews Participant’s views are recorded and used to give them “voice” in the final report; liberal use of quotations in final report interviews tend to be flexible, go with the flow, probe in-depth Rose Weitz: Living with the stigma of AIDS

9. Ethnographic Interviews Three key elements are present: explicit purpose ethnographic explanations (those the researcher tries out on the respondent to see if they make sense) ethnographic questions (descriptive questions, structural questions, contrast questions)

10. Focus Group Interviews 6-12 people typically plus facilitator dates back to the 40s: assessing effectiveness of morale boosting radio shows 70s onward the market researchers use tool 80s onward the academics start doing focus groups again

11. Focus Groups Standard sampling techniques used to get group Recorded manually or may be taped and transcribed Useful to record names of participants so that discussion can be tracked during the analysis Analyzed using content analysis

12. Focus Groups Transcript of discussion is the data strengths: –open-ended question posed to a group but no particular probing for meaning –spontaneously deal with issues –usually reasonably cheap ($50 to participate) –Weaknesses:

13. Nursing Research Example of Focus Group Smoking Among Disadvantaged Women: Causes and Cessation (Stewart, M.., Gillis, A., & Brosky, G., et al. (1996).

14. Field Experiments Researcher intervention occurs in a natural setting e.g.- greeting stranger as measure of reaction to a form of non-conformity proxemics behavior is observed in natural settings & hence not contaminated by the artificiality in lab experiments

15. Naturalistic Observational Studies Naturalistic observations (a better term) no intervention, simply record behaviour seat belt use holding door behaviour elevator behaviour

16. Naturaliatic Observations Examples Dressing for winter parking violations gender & smoking professor/student participation: gender seat belt compliance speeding Antigonish healthy food purchase ABM behavior termination of conversations drinking patterns smoking behavior teens stop sign tipping

17. Steps in Doing Study restricting observations review of literature developing hypotheses defining terms tally sheet/master table/individual tables writing report

18. Analyzing Qualitative Data Researcher must immerse self in the data Read & re-read the transcripts Computer can perform manual cutting, pasting, & sorting of data NUD*IST and Ethnograph are two popular software program

19. Field Studies weak on generalizations strong on validity (real behavior) causal inferencing a challenge multivariate a problem probing strong with participant observation, in-depth interviews, and focus groups probing weak with covert observational

20. Disadvantages of Computer Analysis Analysis must be done a certain way because the software dictates it Inappropriate use & unnecessary coding of data simply because the computer is available to do it Cost & maintenance of hard & software Researcher must still develop initial organizing system

21. Advantages of Computer Analysis of Qualitative Data Multiple copies of files, cut & paste, move data & edit Can file data in one location Locate & sort data by cases promptly Can locate a piece of text related to certain data without reading through transcripts Forces researcher to read each line of text to consider possible codes & nodes for coding

22. Content Analysis Analytical technique associated with qualitative studies One is attempting to assess the “content” of the message Makes inferences by systematically analyzing written or verbal communication

23. Basic Decisions in Content Analysis Decide on the unit of analysis Coefficient of reliability (measure of agreement between coders) Coef of R = # of units in identical category total # of units coded Develop a tally sheet

24. Advantages of Field Studies Provide a holistic understanding of the phenomenon Provides in-depth descriptions, can probe deeply, flexiblity in data collection High validity in measures because you are recording actual observations Direct costs inexpensive but time commitment is high

25. Limitations of Field Studies Inability to tell if emerging patterns are representative or peculiar to the group studied impossible to replicate making verifiable causal inferences is difficult because only 1 case is examined