1. Collecting and Analyzing Data – Part 2
DIE 4564 Research Methods
Collecting and Analyzing Data – Part 2
Qualitative Methods
Week 3 Day 2

2. Conducting Qualitative Field Research
Preparing for the Field
Be familiar with relevant research
Discuss your plans with others in the area
Identify and meet informants (when appropriate)
First impressions are important
Establish rapport (an open and trusting relationship)
Ethical considerations

3. Conducting Qualitative Field Research
Establishing Rapport
Rapport – an open and trusting relationship, especially important in qualitative research, between researchers and the people they’re observing.

5. Conducting Qualitative Field Research
Qualitative Interview – contrasted with survey interviewing, the qualitative interview is based on a set of topics to be discussed in depth rather than based on the use of standardized questions.
V. Conducting Qualitative Field Research
A. Preparing for the field—before entering the field, it is important that the researcher learn as much as possible about the subjects that he or she will be studying. This may involve preliminary contacts with the subjects in which the purpose of the research can be clearly articulated.
B. Qualitative interviewing—this is a form of in-depth interviewing in which the researcher has a general overview of what he or she would like to ask, but is less formal than a face-to-face interview in a survey. Its tone is much more conversational, though the researcher should guide the direction of the research. It is important that the subject is allowed to do most of the talking.
C. Focus groups—this is similar to qualitative interviewing, except that the researcher is questioning several subjects simultaneously. Generally researchers seek to include certain types of people in the focus group.
D. Recording observations—because field research involves direct observations, it is important that the researcher is able to record all pertinent observations. It is difficult to recall all that occurred, so field notes are typically used to record information,

6. Conducting Qualitative Field Research
Stages in Complete Interviewing Process
Thematizing
Designing
Interviewing
Transcribing
Analyzing
Verifying
Reporting

7. Conducting Qualitative Field Research
Focus Group – a group of subjects interviewed together, prompting a discussion.
Advantages: real-life data, flexible, high degree of face validity, fast, inexpensive
Disadvantages: not representative, little interviewer control, difficult analysis, interviewer/moderator skills, difficult logistically

8. Conducting Qualitative Field Research
Recording Observations
Take detailed notes, but balance with observations
Rewrite notes with observations soon after observations with filled in details
Record everything
Look for themes
Coding for key phrases or concepts

9. Review Question
Unlike a survey, a ________ is an interaction between an interviewer and a single respondent.

10. Review Question
Unlike a survey, a qualitative interview is an interaction between an interviewer and a single respondent.

11. Strengths and Weaknesses of Qualitative Field Research
Strengths of Qualitative Field Research
Effective for studying subtle nuances in attitudes and behaviors and social processes over time
Flexibility
Inexpensive

12. Strengths and Weaknesses of Qualitative Field Research
No appropriate statistical analyses

13. Strengths and Weaknesses of Qualitative Field Research
Validity
Greater validity than survey and experimental measurements
Reliability
Potential problems with reliability

14. Review Question
The more personal nature of field research tends to diminish its _______.

15. Review Question
The more personal nature of field research tends to diminish its reliability.

16. Review question
In comparison to surveys and experiments, field research has A. high validity and high reliability. B. high validity and low reliability. C. low validity and high reliability. D. low validity and low reliability.

17. Review question
ANSWER: B. In comparison to surveys and experiments, field research has high validity and low reliability.

18. Review question
_____ describes when the subject of social research may react to being studied, thus altering their behavior from what it would have been normally. A. Reactivity B. Sensitivity C. Hyperactivity D. Validity

19. Review question
ANSWER: A. Reactivity describes when the subject of social research may react to being studied, thus altering their behavior from what it would have been normally.

20. Review Question
In a _____, typically people are brought together to engage in a guided discussion on some topic. A. classroom B. focus group C. micro study D. institution

21. Review Question
ANSWER: B. In a focus group, typically people are brought together to engage in a guided discussion on some topic.

22. Unobtrusive Research Unobtrusive Research
Types of Unobtrusive Research
Content Analysis
Analysis of Existing Statistics
Comparative and Historical Analysis

23. Content Analysis
Content Analysis – the study of recorded human communications (i.e., books, websites, paintings, laws).
Topics Appropriate for Content Analysis
“Who says what, to whom, why, how, and with what effect?”

24. Content Analysis
Sampling in Content Analysis
Units of Analysis

25. Sampling in Content Analysis
Identify the unit of analysis:
You are interested in how children’s literature portrays gender roles related to food preparation.
You are interested in popular film’s use of product placement of sweetened beverages.
You are interested in the content of Internet Blogs related to “Thin-spiration” fostering inappropriate weight loss.

26. Content Analysis Coding in Content Analysis
Coding – the process whereby raw data are transformed into a standardized form suitable for machine processing and analysis.

27. Content Analysis Coding in Content Analysis
Manifest Content – the concrete terms contained in a communication – viable surface content.

28. Content Analysis Coding in Content Analysis
Latent Content – the underlying meaning of communication.

29. Content Analysis Conceptualization and the Creation of Code Categories
Operational Definition
Levels of Measurement

30. Content Analysis Counting and Record Keeping
The end product of coding must be numerical.
Record keeping must distinguish between units of analysis and units of observation.
Record from the base from which the counting is done.
Relational analysis versus conceptual analysis

31. Content Analysis
Counting and Record Keeping
Tally sheets

32. Qualitative Data Analysis
Tips to Avoid Errors
If there are sufficient cases, use random selection
Give at least three examples in support of each assertion
Have your analytic interpretations carefully reviewed by others
Report whatever inconsistencies you do discover

33. Content Analysis Strengths of Content Analysis
Economy of time and money
Allowing for the correction of errors
Permits the study of processes occurring over time
Research has little (if any) effect on subjects
Reliability

34. Content Analysis Weaknesses of Content Analysis
Limited to recorded communications
Validity

35. Review Question
In this technique, _________, the researcher goes beyond observing the frequency of a particular concept to examining relationships among concepts.

36. Review Question
In this technique, relational analysis, the researcher goes beyond observing the frequency of a particular concept to examining relationships among concepts.

37. Analyzing Existing Statistics
The analysis of existing statistics is not the same as secondary analysis.
Secondary analysis is where you obtain permission to use someone else's database to undertake your own analysis. For example obtaining access to the Nurses Health Study database to apply a new way to analyze nutrient density.
Existing statistics may be the main source of data or a supplemental source of data.

38. Analyzing Existing Statistics
Sources of Existing Statistics
Statistical Abstract of the United States
Bureau of the Census
Demographic Yearbook
World Health Organization
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

39. Review Question
To overcome some validity problems, researchers can employ ________ by looking for multiple indicators of a concept.
A. validation
B. replication
C. sampling
D. logical reasoning

40. Analyzing Existing Statistics
Review Question
To overcome some validity problems, researchers can employ ________ by looking for multiple indicators of a concept.
The correct answer is B. Researchers use replication to look for multiple indicators of a concept, thereby overcoming some validity problems.

41. Ethics and Unobtrusive Measures
Sometimes even unobtrusive measures can raise the possibility of violating subjects’ privacy.
The general principles of honest observation, analysis, and reporting apply to all research techniques.

42. Review Question
Which of the following occurs when you obtain a copy of someone else’s data and undertake your own statistical analysis? A. using quasi official statistics B. using official statistics C. secondary analysis D. none of the above

43. Review Question
Answer: C. Secondary analysis occurs when you obtain a copy of someone else’s data and undertake your own statistical analysis.

44. Review Question
Which of the following is(are) a type(s) of unobtrusive research methods? A. content analysis B. analysis of existing statistics C. comparative and historical research D. all of the above

45. Review Question
Answer: D. Content analysis, analysis of existing statistics, and comparative and historical research are types of unobtrusive research methods.

46. Qualitative Data Analysis
Qualitative analysis – the non-numerical examination and interpretation of observations, for the purpose of discovering underlying meanings and patterns of relationship.

47. Linking Theory and Analysis
Discovering Patterns
Frequencies
Magnitudes
Structures
Processes
Causes
Consequences

48. Linking Theory and Analysis
Discovering Patterns
Cross-case analysis – an analysis that involves an examination of more than one case; this can be either a variable-oriented or case-oriented analysis.
Variable-oriented analysis – an analysis that describes and/or explains a particular variable.
Case-oriented analysis – an analysis that aims to understand a particular case or several cases by looking closely at the details of each.

49. Qualitative Data Processing
Concept Mapping – the graphic display of concepts and their interrelations, useful in the formulation of theory.

50. Qualitative Data Processing
Concept Mapping

51. Evaluating the Quality of Qualitative Research
Questions/Assessments for Evaluating Qualitative Research
How credible are the findings?
How has knowledge or understanding been extended by the research?
How well does the evaluation address its original aims and purpose?
How well is the scope for drawing wider inferences explained?
How clear is the basis of evaluative appraisal?

52. Evaluating the Quality of Qualitative Research
Questions/Assessments for Evaluating Qualitative Research
How defensible is the research design?
How well defended are the same design/target selection of cases/documents?
How well is the eventual sample composition and coverage described?
How well was the data collection carried out?
How well has the approach to, and formulation of, analysis been conveyed?

53. Evaluating the Quality of Qualitative Research
Questions/Assessments for Evaluating Qualitative Research
How well are the contexts of data sources retained and portrayed?
How well has diversity of perspective and content been explored?
How well has detail, depth, and complexity of the data been conveyed?
How clear are the links between data, interpretation, and conclusions?

54. Evaluating the Quality of Qualitative Research
Questions/Assessments for Evaluating Qualitative Research
How clear and coherent is the reporting?
How clear are the assumptions/theoretical perspectives/values that have shaped the form and output of the evaluation?
What evidence is there of attention to ethical issues?
How adequately has the research process been documented?

55. Review Question
Which of the following is(are) a way(s) a researcher may look for patterns in a particular research topic? A. frequencies B. magnitudes C. structures D. all of the above

56. Review Question
Answer: D. A research may look for patterns in a particular research topic in the following ways: frequencies, magnitudes, and structures.