2. The Scientific Method: Are we ready to do research?

3. The Scientific Method  Identify, describe and observe phenomenon  Formulate a hypothesis to explain  Through deductive reasoning, decide on how to proceed  Collect and analyze data and form conclusions.

4. Inductive versus deductive  Inductive Moves from specific to general statement “ Every time I throw a ball up it comes back down again so next time it should do the same thing”  Deductive Moves from general to specific “ Due to Newton’s law of gravity, everything that comes up must come down, so when I kick a ball up, it should come down again. “

5. Primate example….  Every time males are around an estrus female, males with meat will share with females and then mate. I predict then that males will share meat in order to gain more mating opportunities.  Based on sociobiological theory, males will implement different behavioral strategies in order to mate with females. I predict that males who hunt more successfully will be more likely to share meat with females and mate more often as a result.

6. Definitions  LAW- under a set of conditions, this is what will happen (no explanation).  PARADIGM- set of assumptions about the nature of the phenomena to be studied and how it will be approached. An accepted theoretical framework l Sociobiology- behavior has a biological (genetic) basis l Behavioral Ecology- behavior has an ecological basis l Social paradigms- race, feminist theory

7. Definitions  Theory- conceptual framework that explains existing phenomena  Model- a visual representation of theory; diagram, mathematical model, referential models etc… l Natural Selection l Sexual Selection l Sociobiology l Evolutionary theory l Intelligent Design theory (?!)

8. Hypotheses  “a working assumption”  “a limited statement regarding cause and effect in a specific situation”  More “factual” than a theory  Usually refers to our state of knowledge prior to research being conducted

9. Example #1  Theory: Secondary compounds in large quantities can pose a health risk  Hypothesis- drinking coffee is dangerous  Prediction- people who drink more than 5 cups of coffee a day will suffer brain damage.

10. Example #2  Theory- male Primates behave in ways that will increase their RS  Prediction- Male display rate will be correlated with mating success  Hypothesis- Males display in order to attract mates.

11. Types of hypotheses  Non-directional  Directional  Null  Statistical

12. Example #1  One developmental theory suggests that children who stay at home in their toddler years are less academically and socially prepared for school.  Question- Are there behavioral and/or academic differences between kindergarten children who stayed home and those who went to preschool for two years or more? Important!!!

13. Hypotheses  Non-directional- “there will be behavioral differences between the two study groups”  Directional- l “Those who attended pre-school will be more academically prepared” l “Those who attended pre-school will socialize more easily”  Null- no differences between study groups

14. Predictions  Kindergarten kids who went to preschool will know their shapes, letters, and colors.  Kindergarten kids who went to preschool will have higher scores on aptitude tests  Kindergarten kids will cry less when left.  Kindergarten kids who went to preschool will make friends more easily.

15. Common mistakes  Assume theory and hypothesis are the same  Allow your wishes for a particular outcome bias the outcome  Ignore or rule out data that “don’t fit”  You never “prove true” a hypothesis- you show that there is “strong support”.

16. Type I and II errors Empirical reality Ho is trueHo is false Correct decision Type I Error Type II Error Retain Ho Reject Ho Your decision Ho = null hypothesis