1. Unit 2: Scientific Revolution & The Enlightenment

2. 22 Enlightenment and Revolution, 1550–1789 Time Line HOME 1550 1789
CHAPTER
Enlightenment and
Revolution, 1550–1789
Time Line
1543 Copernicus publishes heliocentric theory.
1628 William Harvey describes heart function.
1762 Catherine the Great rules Russia.
1690 John Locke defines natural rights.
1550
1789
1609 Galileo observes heavens through telescope.
1748 Montesquieu describes separation of powers.
1687 Newton publishes law of gravity.

3. The Roots of Modern Science
The Medieval View
Most knowledge in the Middle Ages came from the Bible and Greek/Roman sources.
Supports geocentric theory—moon, sun, planets revolve around Earth

4. Why didn’t anyone challenge Aristotle, Ptolemy, & the Church?
During Dark Ages in Europe life was very, very tough (little food, little protection, a lot of disease)
No books to learn from…only the Bible.
Kings didn’t allow for public education…NO KNOWLEDGE.

5. The Roots of Modern Science
A New Way of Thinking
Renaissance prompts new ways of thinking ( )
Scientific Revolution—new way of viewing the natural world—based on observation and inquiry
New discoveries, overseas exploration open up thinking
Scholars make new developments in astronomy and mathematics.
Questioned Greco-Roman ideas
Questioned Church teachings
Use of scientific method and human intellect.

6. A Revolutionary Model of the Universe
The Heliocentric Theory
Widely accepted geocentric theory challenged as inaccurate
Copernicus develops the heliocentric theory—planets revolve around the sun
Later scientists mathematically prove Copernicus to be correct
Nicolaus
Copernicus

7. Johannes Kepler ( )
Believed in Copernicus’s idea, but he also believed that the planets move in ellipses, or oval paths.

8. A Revolutionary Model of the Universe
Galileo’s Discoveries
Italian scientist Galileo Galilei makes key advances in astronomy.
He makes discovery about planet surfaces using telescope
Supports heliocentric theory
4 moons of Jupiter (Jupiter has 8 moons)
Sun spots
Catholic clergy members forced him to recant his findings under threat of excommunication and torture
Church officials placed Galileo under house arrest for the rest of his life in an attempt to silence him
Galileo Galilei

9. Isaac Newton Used math to prove the ideas of Copernicus and Galileo
Called the force gravity, or that all objects fall towards Earth
Said all of nature follows laws.
Motion in space and earth linked by the law of universal gravitation—holds that every object is universe attracts every other object
Newton views the universe as a vast, perfect mechanical clock.

10. The Scientific Method A Logical Approach Bacon and Descartes
Revolution in thinking leads to development of scientific method—a series of steps for forming and testing scientific theories
Bacon and Descartes
Thinkers Bacon and Descartes help to create scientific method
Bacon urges scientists to experiment before drawing conclusions
Descartes advocates using logic and math to reason out basic truths

11. The Scientific Method Francis Bacon (1561-1626)
René Descartes ( )

12. The Triumph of Reason
Rene Descartes is the founder of modern rationalism. This is the belief that reason is the chief source of knowledge.
To Descartes, one fact seemed to be beyond doubt—his own existence.
Descartes clarified this idea by the phrase, “I think, therefore I am” or “Cogito ergo sum.”

13. Francis Bacon and the Scientific Method
Sir Francis Bacon laid the theoretical groundwork for what became known as the scientific method. In Europe, science had been almost a combination of magic and academics, and scientists were not concerned with careful practices, methodical actions, logic, or theory. Bacon believed that all scientific research should rely on careful observation and experimentation rather than simply relying on one’s own thought and reasoning, as earlier scientific thinkers had. The data obtained should then be recorded and analyzed according to logic and reason, then used to produce a testable hypothesis.
Sir Francis Bacon

14. What Does it all Mean?
A. Like the Renaissance and the Protestant Reformation, the Scientific Revolution saw the proposal of many new ideas and techniques that challenged traditional thinking
B. This set the stage for the Enlightenment, a political movement of the 1600s and 1700s which involved political theorists questioning traditional beliefs about government

15. Reflection Question
Do you exist to provide for the government, or does the government exist to provide for you?

16. Scientific Revolution influences the Enlightenment
Use of reason
Natural laws govern human behavior
Application of the scientific method to solving the problems of society
The Enlightenment rejected traditional ideas and supported a belief in human reason

17. Definitions… What are natural/ unalienable rights?
What are natural laws?
What is a philosopher?

18. What ideas concerning Government came out of the Enlightenment?
Do Now – Analyze the following quote:
“It is true that in democracies, the people seem to act as they please; but Political Liberty does not consist in an unlimited freedom…we must have continually present to our minds the difference between independence and liberty. Liberty is a right of doing whatever the law permits, and if a citizen could do what the laws forbid he would no longer be in possession of liberty, because all of his fellow citizens would have the same power.”
How does disobeying laws lead to a loss of liberty?

19. Philosophers and the “State of Man in Nature”
Man in the State of Nature:
Human’s way of thinking, feeling and acting without any influence.
Are we Naturally good or evil? How do we control good or bad behavior?

20. Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679) People are cruel, greedy and selfish
If not strictly controlled they would fight, rob and oppose each other
Supports absolute monarchies.
Emphasized social contract
The state of nature is cruel
The Leviathan – publication
Englishman Thomas Hobbes was one of the first thinkers to apply rational analysis to the study of government. In his famous work Leviathan, Hobbes attacked the notion of the “divine right of kings,” which held that monarchs ruled because they had been appointed by God. Instead, he believed that a ruler derived sovereignty from the implicit consent of the people. Not surprisingly, this radical concept met with near-universal disdain.
Although it seemed to many that Hobbes was attacking monarchy, in reality he favored having strong, authoritarian rulers because of conclusions he drew about human nature. Hobbes somewhat pessimistically believed that people were driven by their passions, and that only a powerful ruler could keep society from degenerating into conflict and chaos. Without a monarch to exercise control, Hobbes wrote that people’s lives would be “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.”

21. John Locke More optimistic view of human nature
All people had natural or unalienable rights
The rights of life, liberty and property
Gov’t’s power comes from the consent of the people and is therefore limited
Should protect natural rights/ if not had a right to rebel
Two Treatises of Government
Influenced the Declaration of Independence and the US Constitution

22. 2 Different Views on Government and People
Thomas Hobbes
Felt humans were naturally selfish and wicked
Believed that w/o government there would be war between man.
Felt to escape life one should give all rights to a strong ruler. In exchange the people gain Law + Order
This is the Social Contract
John Locke
More positive outlook than Hobbes
Felt people could learn from experience
Favored Self Government
Felt everyone is born with 3 natural rights
Life, Liberty and Property.
Believed a governments power comes from the consent of the people.

23. What Was the Enlightenment?
When historians discuss the “Enlightenment,” they are usually referring to 18th-century Europe (France and England in particular), although other parts of the world (including the U.S.) are often included as well. The Enlightenment was a period of intellectual ferment that gave rise to a range of new theories about society, government, philosophy, economics, and religion. The period produced more than just abstract theorizing, however: it offered a whole new way of conceptualizing the world and one’s place in it. In many ways, this change in perception marked the beginning of the modern era, as institutions and traditions of the past began to shift—and even crumble—in the face of new ideas and approaches.
Note to teacher: The painting in this slide is Une soirée chez Madame Geoffrin. Created in 1755, it shows a French salon. Among the notable philosophes depicted in the painting are Diderot, d’Alembert, Turgot, and Condillac. A bust of Voltaire appears in the background.
The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement in Europe during the 18th century that led to a whole new world view. New theories about government, philosophy, economics and religion. It focused mainly on politics and society and involved the writing of many French political writers and philosophers known as the “Philosophes”

24. Enlightenment Principles
Religion, tradition, and superstition limited independent thought
Accept knowledge based on observation, logic, and reason, not on faith
Scientific and academic thought should be secular
The Enlightenment era was characterized by secularism, challenges to authority, and the glorification of reason.
Bullet #1 Many Enlightenment thinkers felt that although the great minds of the medieval and Renaissance eras had achieved much, they also had been overly constrained by religion, tradition, and superstition. To truly achieve independent thought, one had to throw off all limits and rely solely on reason.
Bullet #2 Like the pioneers of the Scientific Revolution, Enlightenment thinkers also strove to make conclusions based on observation, logic, and reason, rather than on faith.
Bullet #3 Enlightenment thinkers revived the spirit of the Renaissance quest for knowledge, choosing to focus on human nature and the workings of society rather than on spiritual matters and religious tenets. This secular approach led to the development of the social sciences.
A meeting of French Enlightenment thinkers

25. Immanuel Kant
According to the 18th- century philosopher Immanuel Kant, the “motto” of the Enlightenment was “Sapere aude! Have courage to use your own intelligence!”
The term “enlightenment” was first coined by Immanuel Kant, a German philosopher. “Sapere aude” means “dare to know” in Latin. Kant also wrote in this essay, “All that is required for this enlightenment is freedom; and particularly the least harmful of all that may be called freedom, namely, the freedom for man to make public use of his reason in all matters.” In other words, in order to be “enlightened,” a person had to think independently rather than simply follow society’s customs and traditions. Thus, the Enlightenment encouraged free thought (or at least freer and more wide-ranging thought than had occurred in the recent past).

26. Baron de Montesquieu Separation of Powers Three branches of gov’t
Legislative, judicial, and executive branches
System of checks and balances/each branch will keep the other from getting too powerful
US Constitution
Separation of powers would prevent tyranny
“Power Should be a check to Power”

27. Montesquieu’s Spirit of Laws (1748)
In it, Montesquieu described “separation of powers”
He modeled it after England, and said there should be 3 powers of government:
The legislative power, which makes laws
The Executive power, which carries out laws
The judicial power, which interprets the law
“Power should be a check to power.”

28. Jean Jacques Rousseau
“Man is born free and everywhere he is in chains”
Civilization corrupted man’s natural goodness/
‘General will’ of the people creates a society/direct democracy
Wrote the “Social Contract”
Majority should work for the common good

29. Voltaire (1694–1778)
Championed social, political, and religious tolerance
Freedom of speech, freedom of religion, toleration, use of reason
“ I do not agree with a word you say but I will defend to the death your right to say it”
His ideas are found in the US Constitution EXCEPT the abolition of slavery.
François-Marie Arouet, known more famously as Voltaire, was the most renowned of the philosophes. A prolific writer, much of his work either satirized or attacked what he called the “relics” of the medieval social order—in particular, the church and the aristocracy. Despite—or perhaps because of—his controversial ideas, he was in high demand at salons not just in France but throughout Europe as well. He lived in the court of Frederick the Great for a time, and he was friends with Catherine the Great.
Above all, Voltaire attacked intolerance in society, politics, and religion. A famous quote usually attributed to Voltaire states, “I disapprove of what you say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it.” He felt that all governments were susceptible to tyranny, but he greatly admired the British model.

30. Cesare Bonesana Beccaria
Beliefs
Laws existed to preserve social order, not avenge crime.
Accused should receive speedy trials.
Torture should never be used.
Degree of punishment should match seriousness of crime.
Capital punishment (death penalty) should be abolished.

31. Painting depicting the Constitutional Convention
The U.S. Constitution
Separation of powers
Checks and balances
Bill of Rights
The framers of the Constitution essentially took Montesquieu’s concept of separation of powers and put it into practice, creating a tripartite government that split authority between executive, legislative, and judicial branches. They also instituted measures designed to ensure that no one branch would become too powerful. Popularly known as “checks and balances,” these measures included things like the president’s veto power, the fact that only Congress can declare war, and the provision that federal and Supreme Court judges hold their terms for life.
Painting depicting the Constitutional Convention

33. Mary Wollstonecraft Women should be equally educated along with men.
Women should enter professions traditionally dominated by men like medicine and politics.
Wrote A Vindication of the Rights of Woman

35. Impact of the Enlightenment
People have confidence that human reason can solve social problems
A more secular outlook emerges as scientific thinking replaces superstition, fear and intolerance
The individual becomes more important as people use their own ability to reason and judge

36. Impact of the Enlightenment
Governments and the Church did not like the ideas of the Enlightenment and many books were burned and scholars tortured and killed
Influenced the American, French , and Latin American Revolutions.
Influenced the writing of the Declaration of Independence, the US Constitution, and The French Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen
Political impacts such as the Separation of Powers and Enlightened Despots, or rulers who believed in Enlightenment ideals

37. “Enlightened Monarchs”
Most of Europe ruled by absolute monarchs
Receptive to Enlightenment ideas
Instituted new laws and practices
Enlightened Monarchs
Frederick II, Prussia
Catherine the Great, Russia
Maria Theresa, Austria
Joseph II, Holy Roman Empire
Gustav III, Sweden
Napoleon I, France
During the time of the Enlightenment, most of the countries in continental Europe were ruled by monarchs who exercised absolute power. Many of these monarchs read Enlightenment works and were intrigued by the new ideas thinkers put forth. The philosophes thought that an “enlightened” monarch could implement their ideas, which would result in better laws and a general improvement in the quality of life for all citizens. Some thinkers did end up corresponding with or advising European monarchs and eventually influenced many to put a range of Enlightenment ideals into practice.

38. Enlightened Despots
Some monarchs accepted Enlightenment ideas. They were known as Enlightened Despots.
Maria Theresa of Austria: improved the tax system/ Tax the clergy and the nobles/ made primary education available in her kingdom.
Joseph II: practiced religious toleration, ended censorship and abolished serfdom.
Catherine the Great: asked the nobles for advice, freed some of the peasants, built schools, and hospitals. Practiced religious toleration and promoted education for women.

39. How does the Enlightenment affect the American Revolution?
The Glorious Revolution + Enlightenment prepared grounds for the American Revolution
They encouraged the idea that the government should be in the interests of the governed rather than the ruler

40. Americans Win Independence
The Influence of the Enlightenment
Colonial leaders push for independence, rely on Enlightenment ideas
Declaration of Independence—document justifying colonial rebellion
Leader Thomas Jefferson writes Declaration, uses ideas of John Locke

41. Americans Create a Republic
The Federal System
Constitution creates three branches of government
Provides checks and balances—ensures branches share power equally
Promotes federal system—power divided between nation and states
The Bill of Rights
Some fear too much national power, few protections of rights
Leaders win support for Constitution by adding a Bill of Rights
Ten amendments to Constitution that protect freedoms

42. LEGACY
Belief in Progress – actually believing that humanity could solve social problems
Secular Outlook – Not looking to the church for all knowledge
Importance of the Individual – looking to themselves for knowledge and guidance