1. Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Chapter 1: Introduction

2. Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. This text will help us Improve study habits Understand eating disorders Overcome fears and phobias Improve relationships with others Raise children Understand why you behave the way you do and how your behavior can be changed for the better…

3. Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. What is behavior? any activity of an organism that can be observed or somehow measured. The activity may be internal or external. The activity may or may not be visible to others.

4. Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. What is learning? a relatively permanent change in behavior that results from some type of experience. The change in behavior does not have to be immediate – it might not become evident until long after the experience has occurred. Example: –Reading the textbook is a behavior. –Changing your behavior as a result is learning.

5. Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Classical Conditioning the process by which certain inborn behaviors come to be produced in new situations. These behaviors are reflexive or “involuntary”. Classical conditioning can help explain many of our emotional responses and our likes and dislikes. It can explain how we develop debilitating fears and powerful feelings of sexual attraction. Examples: –sneezing in response to dust

6. Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Notations for Classical Conditioning Example: a dog learning to salivate in response to a bell that has been paired with food Bell: Food → Salivation Bell → Salivation

7. Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Operant Conditioning involves the strengthening or weakening of a behavior as a result of its consequences. These behaviors are “voluntary” or goal directed. The consequence of the behavior serves to strengthen future occurrences of that behavior. Examples: –hit the remote button to turn on a favorite TV show –study diligently to obtain a passing grade

8. Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Notations for Operant Conditioning Example: a rat that has learned to press a lever to obtain food. Lever press → Food pellet The effect: Likelihood of lever pressing increases

9. Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Observational Learning involves observation of a model’s behavior, which facilitates the development of similar behavior in an observer. Example: –Learning to ski by watching the instructor ski

10. Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Historical Background

11. Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Nativist (Nature) assumes that a person’s abilities and behavioral tendencies are largely inborn. Plato believed that everything we know is inborn. Learning is simply a process of inner reflection to uncover the knowledge that already exists within.

12. Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Empiricist (Nurture) assumes that a person’s abilities and tendencies are mostly learned. Aristotle disagreed with Plato. He argued that knowledge is not inborn but instead is acquired through experience.

13. Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Aristotle’s Four Laws of Association The Law of Similarity. The Law of Contrast. The Law of Contiguity. The Law of Frequency. The laws of contiguity and frequency are still considered important aspects of learning.

14. Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Mind–Body Dualism Descartes’ notion that some human behaviors are reflexes that are automatically elicited by external stimulation, while other behaviors are freely chosen and controlled by the mind. Thus suggesting that at least some behaviors—namely, reflexive behaviors— are mechanistic and could therefore be scientifically investigated.

15. Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. The British Empiricists believed almost all knowledge is a function of experience. John Locke proposed that a newborn’s mind is a blank slate upon which environmental experiences are written.

16. Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Structuralism holds that it is possible to determine the structure of the mind by identifying the basic elements that compose it. The method of introspection is when the subject in an experiment attempts to accurately describe his or her conscious thoughts, emotions, and sensory experiences. The emphasis on systematic observation helped establish psychology as a scientific discipline.

17. Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Functionalism assumes that the mind evolved to help us adapt to the world around us and that the focus of psychology should be the study of those adaptive processes. Psychologists should study the adaptive significance of the mind. E. B. Thorndike and John B. Watson, two of the most important figures in behaviorism, were students of functionalist psychologists.

18. Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Theory of Evolution Natural selection is the concept that individuals or species that are capable of adapting to environmental pressures are more likely to survive and reproduce than those that cannot adapt. –Traits vary, –many traits are heritable, and –organisms must compete for limited resources.

19. Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. The real driving force behind evolution is not survival of the fittest… but the reproductive advantage that accrues to those individuals possessing traits that are best suited to the environment.

20. Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Evolutionary Adaptation a trait that evolves as a result of natural selection Individuals with successful traits are more likely to have offspring who, when they inherit the successful traits from their parents, are also more likely to survive and reproduce. These traits can be both physical adaptations & behaviors.

21. Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. The Ability to Learn evolved because it conferred significant survival advantages to those who had this ability.

22. Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Behaviorism the study of environmental influences on observable behavior. We are unable to directly observe another person’s thoughts and feelings. Watson reasoned that for psychology to be a purely “objective science”, it must be based solely on the study of directly observable behavior and the environmental events that surround it.

23. Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Law of Parsimony simpler explanations for a phenomenon are generally preferable to more complex explanations. Morgan’s Canon argued that we should interpret an animal’s behavior in terms of –lower, more primitive processes (e.g., reflex or habit) –rather than higher, more mentalistic processes (e.g., decision or imagination). Watson thought the same should be true for interpretations of human behavior.

24. Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Five Schools of Behaviorism

25. Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Watson’s Methodological Behaviorism Psychologists should study only publicly observable behavior. Events that can only be –subjectively perceived (such as our inner thoughts and feelings) –or that are assumed to exist on an unconscious level (such as a mother’s unconscious hatred of her unwanted child) were to be stricken from scientific analysis. Few behaviorists were this extreme.

26. Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Methodological Behaviorism

27. Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Hull’s Neobehaviorism Hull claimed that Watson’s rejection of unobservable events was scientifically unsound. Hull noted that both physicists and chemists make inferences about events that have never been directly observed but that can nevertheless be operationalized. Psychologists should infer the existence of internal events that might mediate between the environment and behavior. Mediators largely consisted of physiological-type reactions. Example: a “hunger drive” that can be operationalized as number of hours of food deprivation.

28. Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Neobehaviorism

29. Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Tolman’s Cognitive Behaviorism Tolman disagreed with Hull and believed that it would be more useful to analyze behavior on a broader level. Behavior is more than just a chain of discrete responses attached to discrete stimuli. It is an overall pattern of behavior directed toward particular outcomes. Tolman’s cognitive behaviorism utilizes intervening variables, usually in the form of hypothesized cognitive processes, to help explain behavior. We create cognitive maps which are mental representations of our spatial surroundings.

30. Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Cognitive Behaviorism

31. Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Bandura’s Social Learning Theory a cognitive-behavioral approach that strongly emphasizes the importance of observational learning and cognitive variables in explaining human behavior Reciprocal determinism states that environmental events, observable behavior, and “person variables” (including thoughts and feelings) have a reciprocal influence on each other. Social Learning Theory has stimulated the development of cognitive-behavior therapy, in which psychological disorders are treated by altering both environmental variables and cognitive processes.

32. Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Social Learning Theory

33. Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Skinner’s Radical Behaviorism emphasizes the influence of the environment on overt behavior, rejects the use of internal events to explain behavior, and views thoughts and feelings as behaviors that themselves need to be explained. Internal events, such as sensing, thinking, and feeling, as “covert” or private behaviors that are subject to the same laws of learning as “overt” or publicly observable behaviors. Example: –studying and any thoughts about achieving a high mark by studying are the result of some experience, such as a history of doing well on exams when the student did study

34. Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Radical Behaviorism

35. Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Why not study internal events? Our assessments of internal thoughts and feelings thus are often unreliable. –Example: the task of teaching a young boy to correctly label the feeling of pain. It is often difficult to determine the actual relationship of thoughts and feelings to behavior. –Example: the act of providing help in an emergency. We do not have any means of directly changing these internal events. Such explanations are sometimes only pseudo explanations. –Example, I “feel like going to the movies.”

36. Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Skinner’s Molar View Only reflexive behaviors are automatically elicited by the stimuli that precede them. –Example: salivating in response to food Reflexive behaviors are distinguished from behaviors that are controlled by their consequences, which are more flexible and less predictable. –Example: rat is running through the maze because such behavior has in the past resulted in food. We should explain the behavior by referring to past experience.

37. Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Skinner’s View of Genetic Factors Behavior is fundamentally the result of the interaction between genes and the environment. However, genetic factors are largely unmodifiable. To assume that a behavior pattern has a strong genetic basis is to assume also that little can be done to alter it. Skinner believed that genes have a great impact on behavior but behaviors can change. Behaviors that lead to favorable outcomes are more likely to be repeated, whereas those that do not lead to favorable outcomes are less likely to be repeated.

38. Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Behavior Analysis grew out of radical behaviorism. Applied Behavior Analysis is a technology of behavior in which basic principles of behavior are applied to real-world issues. –also sometimes referred to as behavior modification –Example: helping people with clinical disorders, such as phobias and schizophrenia

39. Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Summary This text will introduce us to: Classical Conditioning, in which reflexive behaviors come to be elicited in new situations Operant Conditioning, in which the probability of a behavior is influenced by its consequences

40. Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Summary of Historical Significance Aristotle assumed that knowledge is largely gained from experience Descartes proposed that involuntary behaviors are automatically elicited by external stimulation British empiricists argued that all knowledge is a function of experience Structuralists hold that we need to identify the basic elements that compose it Darwin’s theory of evolution says that adaptive characteristics evolve through the process of natural selection. Functionalists study publicly observable behavior and the environmental events that influence them

41. Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 3e by Russell A. Powell, Diane G. Symbaluk, and P. Lynne Honey Copyright © 2009 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Summary of Schools of Behaviorism Watson’s methodological behaviorism Hull’s neobehaviorism Tolman’s cognitive behaviorism Bandura’s social learning theory Skinner’s radical behaviorism