1. Africa, the Middle East, and Asia in the Era of Independence

2. Getting Independence was the easy part..... Former colonies had challenges building new viable nations that could prosper in the global economy and provide opportunities for all social groups All problems come from this premise.....

3. The Challenges to Independence Nationalist leaders had made followers believe that they could create a better life after the Europeans were gone and this leads to disappointment among the public Lack of resources, so no chance at distributing them evenly among the population Rivalries between groups slowly developed and would lead to political instability and in some extreme cases famine Leaders needed to address population increases, urban growth, rural problems, and environmental damage

4. The Population Problem During the colonial era food crops and an end to war and famine (with new railroads) greatly increased the population South Asia already had a large population and this added to it Africa had a small population, so any adjustment upward was significant Strong resistance to birth control methods because of cultural or religious beliefs Lack of capacity (education and resources) to change habits and develop family planning European policy of limiting industrialization in their colonies hurt population of colony because the increasing population had no where to work nor a place from which to draw resources for their growing population

5. Bad Moves to the Cities Prospect of job opportunities in cities draws people from the villages but lack of industrial jobs means that these people have no work They turn to street vending, petty crime, and begging to survive They are sometimes used for political purposes to fight for one politician or another They have to get basic resources from the rural areas, thus depriving rural areas of their own necessities

6. Environmental Problems Explosive population growth leads to rural overcrowding and soil depletion, erosion, deforestation, overgrazing This is intensified by industrial pollution and no regulations on it Lack of new environmental technology means governments can't lesson the damage even if they wanted to

7. Women and Feminist Struggles in the Postcolonial Era Women played large roles in fight for independence After independence was won and rights enshrined in the constitutions of the new countries, these were largely ignored Women who did become powerful were only powerful because they were connected to powerful men: o Indira Gandhi- daughter of Jawaharal Nehru ( India's first prime minister) o Benazir Bhutto- daughter of Pakistani prime minister Some obstacles: early age of marriage, many children, persistence of male-centric customs (i.e.women eating after men), spread of religious revivalism, lack of education and resources

8. Challenge to the Economies These countries usually export crops and raw materials (cheap items, whose price fluctuates often but is in overall decline) These countries import manufactured goods (expensive items) In addition, the leaders are often corrupt and have enriched their own family members rather than help the economy o failure to redistribute land o failure to enact social reform Rely on loans from international organizations like the World Bank, International Monetary Fund

9. A Return to Authoritarian Rule Ghana- Kwame Nkrumah- leader of the independence movement genuinely tried to initiate reform but when challenged by rivals and a weak economy he quickly began to consolidate power and he became a dictator o suppressed opposition o grew ties to Communist Party o eventually overthrown by a military coup

10. Military Response military is often the only group that can restore order BUT they are usually only trained in the use of force, which they dispense freely and without conscience Bad military regimes squash political and civil liberties: o Uganda (under Idi Amin) o Myanmar o Congo

11. The Case of Egypt Egypt had gotten independence in 1930s but political parties did little to solve the nations problems Free Officers Movement (wanted to take power in a real revolution) allied itself to the Muslim Brotherhood (a Muslim organization committed to social change but who later became highly politicized) 1948 Egypt defeated in Arab-Israeli war Clashed with British over continued occupation of Suez Canal 1952 Gamal Abdul Nasser takes power in military coup All political parties disbanded by 1954 Enacted broad changes intended to help the Egyptian masses: o public education o land reform o tax reform o 5-year plans to industrialize

12. contd. 1956 manages to finally oust the British from the Suez canal Supported other revolutions in the Arab world and wanted to get rid of Israel Other great initiatives began failing Anwar Sadat takes over and dismantled the state structure that Nasser had made and allowed more foreign and private investment Hosni Mubarak continued this Continuing problems: o population growth o corrupt bureaucracy o uneven distribution of wealth These problems lead to the growth of Muslim fundamentalist movements (one of which assasinated Sadat)

13. Case Study: India India different because: o it kept civilian rule (instead of military rule) o came into independence with a larger industrial and scientific center as well as larger middle class o good leadership (Jawaharlal Nehru and the Congress party) that was committed to freedom, democracy, and social reform Result: India is the world's largest democracy with a vocal opposition and vibrant and independent free press Economic policies pushed a mix of private and state intervention schemes Green Revolution- introduction of new fertilizers and agricultural technology to increase crop yield Despite success, there is still a large gap between the rich and poor in India due to inadequate resources and the stubborness of the wealthy to keep land to themselves

14. Case Study: Iran 1979 Revolution- Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini- movement to purify religion and rejoin religion and politics (similar to the Mahdi of the Sudan in the 1880s) and rid the Islamic world of Western Imperlialists and corrupt Arab leaders Why Iran? o Iran never fully taken over by the west (just spheres of influence between Great Britain and Russia) o State directed development under the Pahlavi shahs helped maintain economic independence and prosperity but offended the middle class, the ayatollahs, and the mullahs, the rural poor, and the military So, demonstrations in 1978/79 easily ousted the weak shah

15. Iran under Khomeini Drastic changes o repression of constitutional parties o moderates replaced by radical religious leaders o foreign influences ousted o Islamic legal codes put in place o veiling for women became obligatory Invasion by Iraq under Saddam Hussein, who won some territory but angered public, who wanted to surrender (1988 peace deal) Result is an isolated Iran with a weak economy and weak institutions

16. Case Study: South Africa By 1970s it was the largest, most populous, and richest area still under colonial domination o Afrikaners (white settlers)- had controlled the country through the Nationalist party since 1948 (Nationalists had gotten independence from Great Britain in 1960) o set up a system of Apartheid, a series of harsh racial policies, where the white minority kept political and economic power (segregation huge) o police state funded by rich mineral revenues o protest prohibited o African National Congress illegal o Walter Sisulu and Nelson Mandela in jail o Steve Biko killed

17. Change in South Africa 1980s weak economy due to international boycott black liberation movements in neighboring countries strong F.W. de Klerk- moderate Afrikaner leader pushed for reform 1990 Mandela released from jail 1994 free elections lead to ANC to come to power under the leadership of Mandela, who becomes president Persisting problems interethnic rivalries between Zulus and Xhosas white supremacist organizations redistribution of wealth

18. Reformers: Nelson Mandela and F.W. de Klerk

19. Elections in South Africa