1. Observations on Observation

2. Observational Research
Casual every day observations
Interesting – informative - important
Scientific Observation
“Is made under precisely defined conditions, in a systematic and objective manner, and with careful record-keeping.” p. 93 SZZ
Use of constructs, avoid bias and have organized records
Part of “descriptive methods” approach
Describe behavior fully and accurately
Which is difficult to do 2

3. Observational Research
Researchers cannot observe
All of a person’s behavior
All people’s behavior
Behavior is influenced by the situation
However, Researchers can observe
Samples of individuals
Samples of behavior at particular times
Samples of different settings and conditions

4. Sampling Behavior Goal of samples Example: Representitive of
Behaviors
People
Settings and conditions
Example:
How many hours of television did you watch last week?
Is this number representative of how much you typically watch tv?
Is the average for the class representative of the number of hours of tv watched by
all students on campus?
all college students?
all people? 4

5. Sampling Behavior Use data from a sample to represent the population
“Generalize” the findings from sample to population
Sample must be representative of the population
External validity
“Validity” refers to “truthfulness.”
Extent to which a study’s findings may be used to describe people, settings, conditions beyond those used in the study.
Allows generalization from sample to population 5

6. Sampling Behavior
We can only generalize findings when the sample is representative of the population.
Is the sample similar to the population?
Problem: We rarely know the characteristics of the population.
Lots of psychology studies use college student samples.
Are college students representative of the larger population?
Most college students are “WEIRD”
How do we obtain representative samples?

7. Sampling Behavior
External validity depends on how behavior is sampled.
Two methods are
time sampling
situation sampling
Researchers typically use a combination of both methods.
The goal of both methods is to obtain a representative sample of behavior.

8. Sampling Behavior
Time Sampling: Researchers choose time intervals for making observations.
Systematic: Schedule observations to occur at a regular time (e.g., first day of the week, each noon).
Why use this
Random: Use some random means for identifying times for observations.

9. Sampling Behavior Time Sampling:
Time sampling is not used when researchers wish to observe rare events (e.g., behavior following a hurricane).
Event sampling is used for rare events (for example, the researcher travels to the site of a recent hurricane).
See: “Seared in our memories” memory of terrorist attacks of September 11

10. Sampling Behavior Situation Sampling: Researchers choose different
Settings (locations) Quad, Parking Lot, Library, Office
Circumstances; alone, group, taking a test, hanging out
Conditions; hot, cold, time pressure, chilling & grilling
Demonstrate external validity of findings when
Similar behavior across situations i.e. helping behavior
However, some behavior is situation specific

11. Sampling Behavior Situation Sampling
Within situations, researchers may use subject sampling to observe some people in the setting (e.g., choose every 5th person to enter a store).

12. Observation: taking another look
Observing behavior in natural settings is common in ethology
Ethology Movement focused on instinctive behavior such as nest building and imprinting
Also used in ethnography studies
for example Eibl-Eibesfeldt (more on this next time)
Objective observation forms the basis for theory construction
For example observation of same-sex parenting in nonhuman animals such as penguins

13. Importance of observational approach as part of descriptive methods in science
FIGURE 4.2 The children’s book, And Tango Makes Three (Richardson & Parnell, 2005) is based on the story of two male penguins that were observed fostering a penguin chick at Central Park Zoo. The American Library Association reports that this was the most frequently banned book in 2009.

14. Classification of Observational Methods
Direct Observational
Observation without Intervention
Observation with Intervention
Participant
Structured
Field
Indirect Observational “Unobtrusive” (later alligator)
Physical Traces
Archival
Observational methods can also be classified according to the methods for recording behavior.
Comprehensive record of behavior
Selected behaviors

15. Classification of Observational Methods
Direct Observation
Indirect (Unobtrusive) Observation
Observation without Intervention
Observation
with
Intervention
Physical Traces
Archival Records
Participant Observation
Structured Observation
Field
Experiment
© 2012 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

16. Direct Observation without Intervention
Naturalistic Observation:
Observation in natural setting
No attempt to intervene or change situation
Jane Goodal observing chimpanzees in the jungle
College students in the quad
Teachers in the classroom
Study happiness using Facebook entries
Goals:
Describe behavior as it normally occurs such as aggression of children on the school playground
examine relationships among naturally occurring variables.
to establish the external validity of laboratory findings
Naturalistic observation is an alternative when ethical and moral considerations prevent experimental manipulation.
Aggressive behavior of children playing at school

17. Direct Observation with Intervention
Most psychological research involves observation with intervention.
Increased control over observations
Three methods in natural settings:
Participant observation
Disguised
Undisguised
Structured observation
Field experiment

18. Direct Observation with Intervention
Participant Observation: Observer is an active participant in the natural setting he or she observes.
undisguised: people in the setting know they are being observed which can produce reactivity
Anthropologists doing ethnographies
What can be done to reduce reactivity?
disguised: people don’t know they are being observed
Will reduce reactivity but make it go away
What are the ethical concerns?

19. Direct Observation with Intervention
Disguised participant observation helps control for reactivity, one of the main problems associated with observation.
Reactivity occurs when people change their usual behavior because they know they are being observed.
Participant observers may sometimes lose their objectivity by becoming too involved in the situation
Police academy training as an undisguised participant
Participant observers may influence the behavior of people they are observing.

20. Direct Observation with Intervention
Structured Observation: Researcher sets up (structures) a specific situation in order to observe people’s behavior.
Examples: clinical and developmental observations of behavior, psychological testing
Structured observation is useful when behavior is difficult to observe as it naturally occurs.
Problems can occur
when observers don’t follow the same procedures across observations
when important variables are not controlled.

21. Direct Observation with Intervention
Structured Observation
Examples of structured observation:
Simons and Levin (1998) studied “change blindness”
by structuring a situation in which they changed the person who asked the participant directions to a campus building.
results indicated only about half of the people observed noticed the change.
Researchers often use confederates to create the structured situation such as “inattentional blindness”. (video example)
Students love seeing these videos. Best to access the videos before class as they can take a while to load.

22. Direct Observation with Intervention
Field Experiment: Researcher manipulates an independent variable in a natural setting and observes behavior (dependent variable).
There must be two or more conditions to compare (independent variable).
For example confederates cutting into a waiting line
Researchers often use confederates to create these different conditions.
Researchers attempt to have the most control in field experiments.