1. Chapter 12
Education

2. Chapter Outline The Development and Structure of Education
The Functionalist Perspective
The Conflict Perspective
Symbolic Interactionism
Higher Education

3. Questions for Consideration
What are the roles that are defined for students?
What are the roles for teachers in an academic setting?
Does the academic setting change the role for the student and the teacher?

4. Development of Education
The purpose of education is the transmission of knowledge.
Early emphasis in American schools was on “civilizing” the young.
After the turn of the 20th century, the emphasis shifted to education for jobs.
Early schools were modeled after businesses and have become increasingly more bureaucratic.

5. Objectives of Early Schools
To create a literate, active, and informed public.
Teaching democratic values and marketable skills became popular between 1850 and 1910.
In the 19th century, public schooling was designed to be a mechanism of social control.

6. Bureaucracy in Education
Early school administration was based on the factory model of education.
Children were to be educated in much the same way as cars were mass-produced.
Specialization, rules and procedures, and impersonality as characteristics of schools demonstrates its bureaucratization.

7. Characteristics of School Bureaucracy
Specialization division:
Administrators who run schools
Teachers who either concentrate on one or two topics, or teach a specific grade level
Specialists who purchase materials
Specialists who test and counsel students
Specialists who manage libraries
Specialists who drive buses, serve lunches, and type memos.

8. Characteristics of School Bureaucracy
Education of large numbers of students can be accomplished most efficiently when the students are homogeneous in development and ability.
It is thought to be more efficient to have all teachers of a given subject teaching the same material.
Rules and procedures exist to ensure that students can transfer from one school to another without losing continuity of curriculum.

9. Reforms in the Classroom
In the 1920s and 1930s, John Dewey led the progressive education movement, with a child-centered focus and emphasis on work-related knowledge.
1960s and 1970s, humanistic education movement advocated for elimination of restrictive rules and codes and the involvement of students in the educational process.

10. Reforms in the Classroom
1983, the back-to-basics movement due to deficiencies in the education system. Emphasis placed on a minimum core curriculum that all students must take.
In 2002, Bush signed a bill known as “No Child Left Behind” that is a manifestation of back-to-basics that requires each student racial and demographic subgroup improve each year.
There has been no evidence that back-to-basics has been successful.

11. National Educational Reform Plan: Six Goals
Every child must begin school ready to learn.
The national high school graduation rate must be 90%.
Competence in core subjects must be shown after grades 4, 8, and 12.

12. National Educational Reform Plan: Six Goals
American students should be the best educated in the world in math and science.
All adults must be literate and possess the skills necessary for citizenship and competition in a global economy.
Schools should be free of drugs and violence.

13. Cooperative Learning
Cooperative learning – takes place in a nonbureaucratic classroom structure in which students study in groups, with teachers acting as guides rather than as the controlling agents.
Students learn more if they are actively involved with others in the classroom.
An accent on teamwork rather than individual performance to concentrate on results rather than performance comparisons.

14. Integrative Curriculum
Integrative curriculum – an approach to education based on student-teacher collaboration; the curriculum is created by students and teachers together.
Subject matter is selected and organized around certain real-world themes or concepts.
Recognizes that students bring to any unit of study a variety of learning styles, interests, and abilities, and different units of study will engage students in varying ways.

15. Competitors to Traditional Public School
Voucher System
Charter Schools
For-profit Schools
Magnet Schools

16. Functionalist Perspective: Functions of Education
Cultural transmission
Social integration
Selection and screening of talent
Promotion of personal growth and development
Dissemination, preservation, and creation of knowledge.

17. Latent Functions of Education
Day-care facilities for dual-employed couples or single parents.
Help locate potential marriage partners.
Prevent delinquency by holding juveniles indoors during the daytime.
Training grounds for athletes.
Inculcate discipline needed to follow orders in a bureaucratized society.

18. Literacy Rates

19. Questions for Consideration
What patterns in the rates of literacy do you see? Explain.
How does the U.S. compare to other countries in the world?

20. Conflict Perspective and Education
Meritocracy – social status is based on ability and achievement rather than social class or parental status.
Under this model, all individuals have an equal chance to succeed and develop their abilities.
Many believe that the U.S. is a meritocratic society, however there are recurring problems that indicate the model does not always work the way we think it does.

21. Critique of Meritocracy in America
Critics argue that public education primarily serves the economic elite.
Schools are not equal for children of all social classes, students do not all have the same starting point.
Randall Collins contends that America is composed of status groups competing with one another for wealth, power, and prestige.
Collins argues that the elite has structured public schools to reinforce the shared culture of their group.

22. Critique of Meritocracy in America
Racial and ethnic minorities face related barriers to achievement.
College entrance examinations demonstrate lower performance by these groups.
The SAT was created in 1926 to enable talented youth, regardless of social class, to attend premier colleges and universities. Ironically, we have seen that social class is a major factor in SAT performance.

24. Question for Consideration
How would a conflict theorist interpret the context of the U.S. as a meritocracy based on this data?

25. Educational Equality
Addresses equality in relation to “effects” of schooling.
Educational equality exists when schooling produces the same results for lower-class and minority children as it does for other children.
Historically in the U.S., not all children have been considered deserving of a formal education. Native Americans, Latinos and African Americans were specifically excluded.

26. Educational Equality
Not until 1954 was separate-but-equal challenged with Brown v. Board of Education.
Results, not resources, are the test of educational equality.

27. School Expenditures
INSERT SNAPSHOT OF AMERICA 12.1 HERE

28. Questions for Consideration
How does your state stack up compared to other states in terms of pupil expenditures?
Do you see a regional pattern in public school funding? Explain.

29. Testing Cognitive Ability
Cognitive ability is the technical term for intelligence, one’s capacity for thinking abstractly.
Cognitive ability testing is an important element in sorting and tracking students, it contributes to educational inequality.

30. Testing Cognitive Ability
Social scientists have generally criticized advocates of genetic differences in intelligence for failing to consider adequately the effects of the social, psychological, and economic climate experienced by children of various backgrounds.
We have discovered the older people are, the higher they score on intelligence tests. Researchers have concluded that environmental factors affect test performance.

31. Testing Cognitive Ability
Robert Williams and other social scientists have argued that intelligence tests have a cultural bias (an unfair measure of cognitive abilities because they are designed for middle-class children and because the results measure learning and environment as much as intellectual ability.
Most tests assume fluency in English, which also impacts performance.

32. Promoting Equality in Education
Four avenues have been identified by policy makers and educators for improving educational equality.
School Desegregation
Compensatory Education
Community Control
Private Schooling

33. Symbolic Interactionism and Education
Hidden Curriculum – transmit to children a variety of nonacademic skills.
Over the years, schools socialize children.
In addition to academics, schools teach discipline, cooperation and conformity.
These skills are thought to be necessary for success in modern bureaucratic society.

34. Symbolic Interactionism and Education
Textbooks and Teachers
Textbooks are a byproduct of the hidden curriculum because many textbooks are slanted in favor of a particular view.
Resistance to critical accounts of history is especially apparent when a teacher attempts to introduce a controversial book (e.g., The Color Purple).
Textbooks implicitly convey values and beliefs.

35. Schools and Sexism
In a coeducational setting, girls, compared with boys, are:
5 times less likely to receive the most attention from teachers
3 times less likely to be praised
8 times less likely to call out in class
3 times less talkative in class
1/2 as likely to demand help or attention
1/2 as likely to be called on in class

36. Schools and Sexism
Boys are more talkative in class, raise their hands more often, move around more, argue with teachers more, and get more of the teacher’s attention than girls.
All of this tends to make young women mature as second-class citizens and deprives the world of important contributions women can make.

37. Trends in College Enrollment
A larger proportion of 18- to 24-year-olds are attending college.
Number of students over age 24 attending college, particularly women, has continued to grow.
The number of students remaining in college after their first year has increased.

38. College Enrollment in the United States: 1965–2010

39. Factors in Rising College Enrollment
Colleges and universities have strong student recruitment campaigns.
Low-paying service jobs continue to replace high-paying manufacturing jobs, resulting in fewer options for those with only high school diplomas.
Increase in the number of community colleges offers an opportunity for many who could not otherwise continue their education.

40. Median Annual Income by Gender, Race, and Education

41. Education, Income, & Occupation
A college education results in higher annual income, regardless of race or gender.
African American and white males who have a college degree have an annual income that is more than double that of high school dropouts.
White male high school graduates earn 65% of that earned by white college graduates.

42. Education, Income, & Occupation
African American males with high school diplomas earn 58% of that earned by African American male college graduates.
White female high school graduates earn annually only about 59% of that earned by white college graduates.
African American females with high school diplomas earn only 50% of African American female college graduates’ annual income.

43. Education, Income, & Occupation
White college graduates earn 3 times the amount earned by white female dropouts.
The benefits of college are even more apparent occupationally.
For African Americans, whites, males, and females, occupational status increases dramatically with higher education.

44. Changes in Higher Education
College studies and college life have changed dramatically during the past 40 years.
A shift from academic merit to student consumerism began in the mid-1960s.
Students increasingly demand courses and programs that are more beneficial for employment, as evidenced in the rise of vocational programs in community colleges, and the shift from liberal arts into business and economics.

45. Changes in Higher Education
Social science departments become service departments for nonmajors.
It is contended that a generation of liberal arts scholars has been lost.
Another problem has been declining financial support which threatens high quality and low cost of public higher education.
For instance, University of California’s system enjoyed 70% of its funding from the state and today it is less than 25%. University of Michigan now receives less than 20%.

46. Questions for Consideration
Can you think of specific examples from your educational experience that demonstrate a hidden curriculum?
What do you think are future impacts to higher education? How does this impact you?

47. Did You Know?
The following web link provides a short YouTube video regarding how fast our technology is changing and the impact this has on education.