1. Chapter 4 Words and Sentences

2. Overview From Morphology From Morphology – The analysis of words – and how they are structured To Syntax To Syntax – The analysis of phrases and sentences – and how they are structured.

3. Morphology Words vs morphemes Words vs morphemes Morphemes as smallest units of meaning in a language Morphemes as smallest units of meaning in a language – respect+ful; dis+respect+ful – room+mate; stir+fry – fire+fight+er – Manhattan.

4. Morphological Analysis Describing morphemes… Describing morphemes… Analyzing their arrangements…. Analyzing their arrangements….

5. Describing Morphemes: Bases Form foundations of words Form foundations of words Establish basic meanings Establish basic meanings – English: fish; talk – Shinzwani: -lo- (fish); -lagu- (talk) – Czech: piv- (beer)

6. Kinds of Bases – Roots Serve as underlying foundation Serve as underlying foundation Can’t be broken down any further Can’t be broken down any further – English: fish – Shinzwani: -lo- (fish) – Stems Derived from roots Derived from roots – By means of affixes (see ‘affix’ slides)  English: fish+ing = fishing; talk+er = talker  Shinzwani: lo+a = -loa (fishing) Can have additional affixes attached Can have additional affixes attached – English: talker+s = talkers – Shinzwani: ni+ku+loa = nikuloa (I am fishing).

7. Describing Morphemes: Affixes Attach to bases Attach to bases Add grammatical information Add grammatical information – English: -er; -ing = fisher, fishing, talker, talking = fisher, fishing, talker, talking – Shinzwani: hu- (to) ; niku- (I am) = huloa (to fish), hulagua (to talk) = huloa (to fish), hulagua (to talk) = nikuloa (I am fishing), nikulagua (I am talking) = nikuloa (I am fishing), nikulagua (I am talking) – Czech: -o; -a; -Ø = pivo (beer), piva ((2, 3, 4) beers), piv ((5+) beers). = pivo (beer), piva ((2, 3, 4) beers), piv ((5+) beers).

8. Kinds of Affixes Prefixes Prefixes – im+possible – un+likely Suffixes Suffixes – walk+ing Infixes Infixes – fan+bloody+tastic Circumfixes Circumfixes – m+loz+i (fisherman) Reduplication Reduplication – mpole+mpole (very slow) Interweaving Interweaving – k+i+t+aa+b (book) Portmanteau Portmanteau – Blog – Brunch

9. What Affixes DO Derivation Derivation – Changing one kind of word into another verbs into nouns: read -- reader; -lo- -- mlozi verbs into nouns: read -- reader; -lo- -- mlozi adjectives into verbs: modern -- modernize adjectives into verbs: modern -- modernize Inflection Inflection – Showing relationships among words in a group tenses: hunted -- hunting tenses: hunted -- hunting comparisons: big -- bigger -- biggest comparisons: big -- bigger -- biggest persons: I fish -- she fishes persons: I fish -- she fishes number: cat -- cats; mpaha – zimpaha (cat/cats). number: cat -- cats; mpaha – zimpaha (cat/cats).

10. How Many Morphemes? The dogs chased the cats into the bushes. The dogs chased the cats into the bushes.

11. How Many Morphemes? The dog-z chas-t the cat-s in-to the bush-ez. The dog-z chas-t the cat-s in-to the bush-ez. What is the difference between –z and –s? What is the difference between –z and –s? And what about –ez? And what about –ez?

12. Analyzing Arrangement: Free and Bound Morphemes Free morphemes are like bases Free morphemes are like bases – Can stand alone e.g., words: speak; respect; Manhattan e.g., words: speak; respect; Manhattan Bound morphemes are like affixes Bound morphemes are like affixes – Must be attached to other morphemes e.g., affixes: -er; -ing; dis-; -ful e.g., affixes: -er; -ing; dis-; -ful – speak-er; speak-ing; dis-respect-ful But note: roots can also be BOUND MORPHEMES But note: roots can also be BOUND MORPHEMES – e.g., Shinzwani -lo- ‘fish’, Czech piv- ‘beer’ Hierarchy among affixes Hierarchy among affixes – English: derive first, then inflect… help+er+s (not help+s+er). help+er+s (not help+s+er).

13. Allomorphs Variant forms of a single morpheme Variant forms of a single morpheme – e.g., Shinzwani (see page 90 in textbook): {singular-} {singular-} – /shi-/ with -ri, -sahani, -kombe – /mu-/ with -hono, -ndru {plural-} {plural-} – /zi-/ with -ri, -sahani, -kombe – /mi-/ with –hono, -ndru – e.g., English: cats, dogs, & horses {-plural} {-plural} – /-s/ following voiceless stops – /-z/ following voiced stops and vowels – /- I z/ following fricatives.

14. How & Why Allomorphs Change Adjusting to neighboring sounds Adjusting to neighboring sounds – called “morphophonemic conditioning” English: cats, dogs, horses; improbable, illogical English: cats, dogs, horses; improbable, illogical KiSwahili: W/R 4.11 (pages 74-75) KiSwahili: W/R 4.11 (pages 74-75) Reflecting semantic categories Reflecting semantic categories – called “semantic conditioning” KiSwahili: W/R 4.12 (pages 76-77) KiSwahili: W/R 4.12 (pages 76-77)

15. Syntax How words combine into phrases & sentences How words combine into phrases & sentences Note fuzzy boundary between morphology and syntax Note fuzzy boundary between morphology and syntax – Shinzwani: ni+tso+hu+venza ‘I+will+you+like’ ‘I+will+you+like’ All one word All one word – English: I will like you Four different words. Four different words.

16. Analyzing Syntax Finding and testing substitution frames Finding and testing substitution frames – Also called ‘slots and fillers’ The cat in the hat The cat in the hat The cat in the basket The cat in the basket The cat in the tree The cat in the tree M+paha i+send+a mji+ni – The cat is going to town M+paha i+send+a mji+ni – The cat is going to town M+wana a+send+a mji+ni – The child is going to town M+wana a+send+a mji+ni – The child is going to town Gari li+send+a mji+ni – The car is going to town Gari li+send+a mji+ni – The car is going to town M+tu m+zuri m+moja u+le -- that one good person M+tu m+zuri m+moja u+le -- that one good person Ki+kapu ki+zuri ki+moja ki+le -- that one good basket Ki+kapu ki+zuri ki+moja ki+le -- that one good basket Gari zuri moja li+le -- that one good car. Gari zuri moja li+le -- that one good car.

17. Labeling Substitution Frames Let the language be your guide Let the language be your guide Be prepared for different categories Be prepared for different categories – Grammatical gender Czech: masculine, feminine, neuter Czech: masculine, feminine, neuter Shinzwani: human, animal, body part, useful, abstract, Shinzwani: human, animal, body part, useful, abstract, – Case Czech: subject, object, possession, location, Czech: subject, object, possession, location, The effect of obligatory categories The effect of obligatory categories – Grammatical categories that must be expressed.

18. Ordering Substitution Frames Restrictions Restrictions – Which words can go together? The hat in the cat? The hat in the cat? The cat exploded on the rug? The cat exploded on the rug? Roasting a pot of coffee? Roasting a pot of coffee? – Which orders are permitted? the black cat vs le chat noir the black cat vs le chat noir (the) good person vs mtu mzuri (the) good person vs mtu mzuri Anymore I don’t eat pizza? Anymore I don’t eat pizza? – SVO languages and prepositions? The cat in the tree vs Mpaha mwirijuu. The cat in the tree vs Mpaha mwirijuu. Let the language be your guide. Let the language be your guide.

19. Ambiguities Indicate alternative substitution frames Indicate alternative substitution frames – Cow kills farmer with ax (newspaper headline) (newspaper headline) – Put more H 2 O in the coffee, then the bones (message on chalkboard in physical anthro lab) (message on chalkboard in physical anthro lab) – Fruit flies like a banana (attributed to Groucho Marx). (attributed to Groucho Marx).

20. Kinds of Grammars Prescriptive Prescriptive – Provides a model of ‘proper’ speech Many schoolteachers, even today Many schoolteachers, even today Descriptive Descriptive – Describes a language structure on its own terms Boas and anthropologists, 1900s Boas and anthropologists, 1900s Generative Generative – Generates all possible sentences of a language Noam Chomsky, 1950s. Noam Chomsky, 1950s.

21. Generating Sentences Begin at the level of Deep Structure Begin at the level of Deep Structure Phrase Structure Rules Phrase Structure Rules – produce abstract sentences Transformation Rules Transformation Rules – change sentence structures Does time fly like an arrow? Does time fly like an arrow? Phonological rules assign sounds Phonological rules assign sounds Result is pronounceable sentence Result is pronounceable sentence – At the level of Surface Structure.

22. Advantages of Generative Grammar Trees show structure more clearly. Trees show structure more clearly.

23. Disadvantages of Generative Grammar – Relies on introspection You need to know the language well enough to judge grammaticality of sentences You need to know the language well enough to judge grammaticality of sentences – Assumes universal underlying structure Accessible through any language Accessible through any language – But new data continues to challenge universals – Not as useful in learning new languages Working with surface level sentences Working with surface level sentences – Requires working with actual speakers – And discovery of substitution frames