1. Chapter 1 The School As A Social System
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2. Chapter 1: The School as a Social System
What is Organizational Theory?
A set of interrelated concepts, assumptions, and generalizations that describes and explains patterns
of behavior in organizations.
Elements of Theory:
Concepts
Generalizations
Assumptions
Purposes of Theory:
Provide an explanation of how things generally work.
Guide research
Guide practice
Hypotheses:
Conjectural statements that explain relationships.
Use to test theories.
Guide research
Scientific Knowledge:
Propositions supported by systematic research.
Purpose of Science: To test theory and to provide reliable explanation.
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3. Theoretical System Concepts Generalizations Assumptions Concepts
Variables
Variables
Hypotheses
Empirical
Testing
Principles
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4. Rational-Systems Perspective: A Machine Model
Scientific Management (The Beginning)
Rational-Systems Perspective
(A Contemporary View of Scientific Management)
Goals--Organizations exist to attain collective goals
Division of Labor for efficiency
Specialization for expertise
Standardization for routine performance
Formalization for uniformity and coordination
Hierarchy for unity of command and coordination
Span of Control for effective supervision
Exception Principle to free superiors from routine
Coordination for administrative effectiveness
Formal Organization is the official blueprint of the
structure that guarantees efficiency and
effectiveness. The formal organization is the
key to organizational effectiveness.
Frederick Taylor-Scientific Management
Time and Motion Studies
Standardization
Exception Principle
Division of Labor
Span of Control
Henri Fayol-Functions of Administration
Planning
Organizing
Commanding
Coordinating
Controlling
Luther Gulick--Functions of the Executive
POSDCoRB
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5. Natural-Systems Perspective: An Organic Model
Human Relations (The Beginning)
Mary Parker Follet
Taylor antagonist and
human relations advocate
Hawthorne Studies
•Illumination Studies--three studies
•Elton Mayo--more studies( )
•Hawthorne Effect
Informal Organization
•Norms
•Grapevine
•Informal leaders
•Cliques
Informal Norms
“No Squealing”
“No rate busting”
“No chiseling”
“Be a regular guy”
Contemporary Natural System (Human Resources View)
•Survival--organizations are more than instruments for goal
attainment; they are social groups that adapt and survive.
•Individuals are more important than the structure.
•Needs motivate performance more than role demands .
•Specialization can promote boredom and frustration.
•Formalization produces rigidity and rule fixation.
•Informal Norms not formal rules are critical to performance.
•Hierarchy is ineffective because it usually neglects talent.
•Span of Control is dysfunctional because it fosters close and
authoritarian supervision.
•Informal Communication is more efficient and open than
formal communication.
•Informal Organization--informal structures are more
important than formal ones just as informal leaders are more
influential than formal ones. The informal organization is the
key to effectiveness.
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6. Open-systems Perspective: An Integration
Social Science: Interdependence, Integration, and Contingencies
Max Weber Theory of Bureaucracy
Chester Barnard Functions of the Executive
Herbert Simon Administrative Behavior
Talcott Parson Social Systems Theory
Interdependence is a fact of organizational life.
All organizations are open systems whose parts interact and depend on each other
and are dependent on their environments.
Integration is central to an open-systems perspective.
Integration of goals and needs Behavior is a function of structure and needs.
Integration of rational and natural elements All organization have both rational and natural aspects.
Integration of tight and loose couplings Organizations need both tight and loose couplings.
Integration of planned and unplanned activities Politics pervades organizational life.
Integration of formal and informal Organizations have two interactive faces: Formal & Informal.
Contingency Theory
Effectiveness is contingent upon matching There is no one best way to organize, motivate,
the situation with the appropriate technique. decide, lead, or communicate-- “it depends.”
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7. Key Properties of Open Systems
Inputs people, materials, and resources from the outside
Transformation -- the process transforming inputs into something of value by
the system.
Outputs the byproduct of the transformation.
Feedback how the system communicates to its parts and the
environment.
Boundaries systems are differentiated from their environments.
Environment is anything outside the system.
Homeostatis a steady state of equilibrium
Entropy the tendency for all systems for run down and die.
Equifinality the same end can be achieved many ways.
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8. Open System with Feedback Loops
Environment
Throughput
[Transformation]
Inputs
Outputs
People
Performance
Materials
Products
Finances
Services
Feedback
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9. Social Systems Model: Key Assumptions
Social systems are open systems.
Social systems consists of interdependent parts, which interact
with each other and the environment.
Social systems are goal oriented.
Social systems are peopled.
Social systems have structure.
Social systems are political.
Social systems have cultures.
Social systems have norms.
Social systems are conceptual and relative.
All formal organizations are social systems, but not all social systems
are organizations.
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10. Key Elements of the School as a Social System
Schools are social systems with the following key parts:
Structure: roles are expectations of positions that are arranged in a hierarchy.
Individual: the individual is a key unit in any social system; regardless of position,
people bring with them individual needs, beliefs, and a cognitive
understandings of the job.
Culture: represents the unwritten feeling part of the organizations:
its shared values
Politics: informal power relations that develop spontaneously.
Core: the teaching-learning process is the technical core of schools.
Environment: everything outside the organization; source of inputs.
Outputs: the products of the organizations, e. g. educated students.
Feedback: communication that monitors behavior.
Effectiveness: the congruence between expected and actual outcomes.
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11. Internal Elements of the System
Environment
Transformation Process
Structural System
(Bureaucratic Expectations)
Learning
Teaching
Cultural System
(Shared Orientations)
Political System
(Power Relations)
Inputs
Outputs
Teaching
Learning
Individual System
(Cognition and Motivation)
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12. Social System Model for Schools
Environment
Inputs
Transformation Process
Outputs
Environmental constraints
Human and
capital resources
Mission and
board policy
Materials and methods
Structural System
(Bureaucratic Expectations)
Achievement
Job satisfaction
Absenteeism
Dropout rate
Overall quality
Learning
Teaching
Cultural
System
(Shared
Orientations)
Political
System
(Power
Relations)
Learning
Teaching
Individual System
(Cognition and Motivation)
Discrepancy between Actual and Expected Performance
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13. A Brief History of Organizational Thought:
Pioneers, Concepts, and Principles
STRUCTURAL PERSPECTIVE
HISTORICAL ROOTS CONTEMPORARY SYSTEMS PERSPECTIVES
SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT RATIONAL SYSTEMS PERSPECTIVE
( )
(Focus: Organizational Goals) (Focus: Formal Organization, Rationality, and Efficiency)
STRUCTURE IS CENTRAL
PIONEERS:
Taylor
Fayol
Gulick
Urwick
KEY CONCEPTS:
. Goals
. Division of Labor
. Specialization
. Standardization
. Formalization
. Hierarchy of Authority
. Narrow Span of Control
. Control
. Rationality
. Formal Organization
KEY ASSUMPTIONS AND PRINCIPLES:
1. Organizations exist primarily to accomplish their goals.
2. Division of labor leads to specialization.
3. Specialization promotes expertise.
4. Standardization of tasks produces efficiency.
5. Formalization of activities improves efficiency.
6. Hierarchy promotes disciplined compliance.
7. A narrow span of control improves supervision.
8. Administrative control is essential for efficiency.
9. Rationality in decision making promotes efficiency.
10. Formal organization can be designed to maximize efficiency.
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14. HUMAN RESOURSES PERSPECTIVE
HISTORICAL ROOTS CONTEMPORARY SYSTEMS PERSPECTIVES
( )
HUMAN RELATIONS NATURAL SYSTEMS PERSPECTIVE
(Focus: Individual Need) (Focus: Informal Organization, Organizational Culture, and Natural Groupings)
THE INDIVIDUAL AND INFORMAL ORGANIZATION
PIONEERS:
Follet
Mayo
Rothlisberger
McGregor
KEY CONCEPTS:
. Survival
. Needs
. Individuals
. Social Structure
. Informal Norms
. Empowerment
. Broad Span of Control
. Culture
. Teams
. Informal Organization
KEY ASSUMPTIONS AND PRINCIPLES:
1. Organizations are primarily social groups adapting and surviving.
2. Individual needs are the primary motivators of organizational performance.
3. Individuals are more important than structure in achieving effectiveness.
4. Individuals organize themselves informally on basis of interests.
5. Unofficial norms and procedures are often more important than formal ones.
6. Shared decision making promotes effectiveness.
7. A broad span of control enhances teacher autonomy and effectiveness.
8. Organizational culture mediates the effects of structure.
9. Teamwork is the key to organizational success.
10. Informal structures are more important than formal ones.
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15. CONTEMPORARY OPEN-SYSTEMS PERSPECTIVE
(1960-present)
HISTORICAL ROOTS CONTEMPORARY SYSTEMS PERSPECTIVES
SOCIAL SCIENCE OPEN SYSTEMS PERSPECTIVE
(Focus: Integration) (Focus: Interdependence, Integration, and Contingencies)
INTEGRATION OF FORMAL AND INFORMAL--CONTINGENCIES
PIONEERS:
Weber
Barnard
Simon
Parsons
Weick
Katz & Kahn
KEY CONCEPTS:
. Interdependence of the
organization and its environment
. Integration
of organizational goals and human needs
of rational and natural features
of tight and loose couplings
of planned and unplanned activities
of formal and informal perspectives
. Contingency Theory
KEY ASSUMPTIONS AND PRINCIPLES:
1. All organizations are open systems that interact with their environment.
2. Organizational behavior is a function of the interaction of
organizational structure and individual needs.
3. All organizations have both rational and natural features.
4. Organizations need both loose and tight couplings to succeed.
5. Politics pervades organizational life.
6. Organizations have two interactive faces: a formal and an informal.
7. There is no one best way to organize, to motivate, to decide, to lead,
or to communicate; the effectiveness of such processes is contingent
upon a variety of circumstances.
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16. The Triadic Relations of Theory, Practice, and Research
Theory, research, and practice are in a dynamic relationship. Each set of relationships is reciprocal: theory guides practice, but practice reinforces, refines, or disconfirms theory; theory guides research, but research creates and refines theory; and research guides practice, but practice directs research. T R P
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17. Theory into Practice Applications
Name the people who have formal authority over teachers in your school? What are their formal positions? How much authority do they have and how do they exert it? Give specific examples. Describe the division of labor and specialization in your school. Is there a narrow or broad span of control? How much autonomy do teachers have to make their own decisions? How would you characterize the formal organization of your school?
Name the people who have informal authority but no formal authority? Where do they get their influence? What are the important informal norms in your school? How do the formal and informal leaders interact? Do they cooperate or compete? Give some examples. How much conflict exists between the formal and informal? Give examples of conflict. Describe the grapevine. How would you characterize the informal organizations of your school?
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