2. W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011. Chapter 3 Structure in Schools

3. W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011 Model of Bureaucracy Max Weber (1947) Division of Labor Division of labor leads to specialization and specialization promotes expertise. Impersonal Orientation Decisions based on facts, not feelings or biases. Hierarchy of Authority - Systems of superiors and subordinates Hierarchy promotes disciplined compliance and coordination. Rules and Regulations Formalization ensures stability and uniformity of behavior. Career Orientation Career orientation-promotion according to seniority, achievement, or both Efficiency Bureaucracy maximizes rational decision-making and administrative efficiency

4. Critique of Weber ’ s Model W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011 Function Expertise Rationality Compliance and Coordination Continuity and Stability Incentive Characteristic Division of Labor Impersonal Orientation Hierarchy of Authority Rules and Regulations Career Orientation Dysfunction Boredom Lack of morale Communication blocks Rigidity and goal displacement Conflict between achievement and seniority

5. W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011 Functions and Dysfunctions of Rules Functions Dysfunctions ExplicationReinforce Apathy ScreeningGoal displacement Legitimate PunishmentCreate legalism LeewayIndulgency

6. W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011 Informal Organization Informal organization is the spontaneous development of a social structure and culture within a formal organization--it is a “ shadow organization. ” How does the informal organizations develop? Activities, interactions, and sentiments form the following: Informal structure Division into cliques Informal norms Personal relations Informal communication; the grapevine Informal leadership

7. W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011 Formal vs. Informal Structure Formal System Hierarchy Division of Labor Formalization Impersonality “ Chain of command ” Informal System Informal structure Division into cliques Informal norms Personal relations “ Grapevine ”

8. W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011 Other Criticisms of Bureaucracy 1. Dual Structure Is the guiding principal of bureaucracy. Authority based on expertise or based on rules and discipline? 2. Feminist Critique Does bureaucracy perpetuate male values at the expense of female ones? Hierarchy, impersonality, independence, rationality, competition, centralized VS. Egalitarianism, personalism, dependence, emotionality, cooperation, decentralized

9. W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011 1.Dysfunctional consequences not considered. 2.Informal organization neglected. 3.Conflict between administration based on expertise and administration based on disciplined compliance. 4.Feminist Critique Summary of Criticisms On Bureaucracy

10. W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011 Brainstorming Activity How do members formally communicate? Informally? What formal processes drive decision making? List informal “ behind the scene ” practices. What are dominant sources of formal power in your school? Who has informal power in your school? Why? What are the formal hiring procedures? What is the informal practice? Who sets the formal goals? Informal goals?

11. W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011 Centralization: Enabling and Coercive What is Centralization? Centralization is the locus of control for decision making--the hierarchy. Two kinds of centralization: Hindering Structure makes it difficult for teachers to do their work; it hinders professional activity. Enabling Structure facilitates the work of teachers; it enables teachers to make professional decisions.

12. W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011 Formalization: Enabling and Coercive What is Formalization? Formalization is the formal system of rules, regulations, procedures, and policies. Two kinds of Formalization: Coercive A rigid set of procedures that punishes and attempts to force compliance. Enabling A flexible set of best practices that enables one to deal more effectively with inevitable problems.

13. W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011 Hindering Organization Hindering Hierarchy Coercive Rules &Procedures  Impose top-down communication  View problems as constraints  Force consensus  Suspicious of differences  Be cautious and closed  Fear the unexpected  Punish mistakes Enabling Organization Enabling Hierarchy Enabling Rules  Use two-way communication  View problems as opportunities  Seek mutual solutions  Support differences  Practice openness  Embrace the unexpected  Correct mistakes Enabling and Hindering Structures

14. W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011 Hall on Structure Types of Rational Organizations - Hall(1962) Bureaucratic Pattern Hierarchy of Authority Rules for Incumbents Procedural Specifications Impersonality Professional Pattern Technical Competence Specialization

15. Formal Structure in Schools W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011 Types of School Structures

16. W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011 Predicted Evolutionary Changes In Structure Chaotic Organization Authoritarian Organization Professional Organization Weberian Organization Stable Environment Turbulent Environment

17. W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011 Discussion Question Use the four types of bureaucracies defined by the Hall to analyze the how to change from one structure to another. For example, how does one move a school from a Chaotic Structure to a Weberian One? Can one go directly to a Weberian Structure or does one first go to an Authoritarian Structure before a Weberian one? Which is the ideal structure for schools? Which is better a Weberian Structure or a Professional Structure? Defend your choice of the ideal? Is the ideal possible? If so, how would you lead a school toward that end?

18. W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011 Five Basic Parts of Structure Mintzberg on Structure Techno- Structure Strategic Apex Support Staff Middle Line Operating Core

19. W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011 Coordinating mechanisms are the fundamental means organizations use to monitor and control work. These mechanisms are the glue the hold the organization together. Mutual Adjustment--informal communication Direct Supervision--personal command Standardization of Work--program directions Standardization of Output--specify the product Standardization of Skills--specify training Control or Coordinating Mechanisms-Mintzberg

20. W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011 Five Combinations and Five Basic Structures (Mintzberg) Key Part Control Mechanism Organization Type Strategic Apex…….Direct Supervision……Simple Structure Technostructure…. Stand. of Work………..Machine Bur. Operating Core….. Stand. of Skills………...Professional Bur. Middle Line………. Stand. Of Outputs…….Divisional Form Support Staff…….. Mutual Adjustment……Adhocracy

21. W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011 Discussion Question Apply Mintzberg ’ s Framework to Schools: What is the ideal structure for elementary schools? For secondary schools? Which coordinating mechanism(s) are most appropriate for controlling teachers? What is the most important structural part of the school? Discuss the structure that really exits compared to what should exist. Is that possible

22. W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011 Loose Coupling Loose couplings are structural connections among the elements that are tied together loosely and in some cases disconnected. E.g,. The administration of a school as little influence in what is happening in the classroom. Consider universities. Some schools are tightly coupled and others are loosely coupled. Bureaucracies tend to be tightly coupled. Professional organizations tend to be more loosely coupled. Tight coupling promotes limits discretion of teachers. Loose coupling enhances discretion of teachers. To what extent is you school loosely coupled? Analyze the tight and loose couplings in your school? Does the structure need tightening or loosening?

23. W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011 Professional and Bureaucratic Orientations Professional Orientation Expertise Objective perspective Impersonal approach Service to clients Bureaucratic Orientation Expertise Objective perspective Impersonal approach Service to the organization Sources of Conflict between Orientations Colleague reference group Hierarchical orientation Autonomy in decision making Disciplined compliance Self-imposed control Subordinated to the organization Sources of Compatibility between Orientations

24. Theory into Practice Applications 1.Name the people who have formal authority over teachers in your school? What are their formal positions? How much authority do they have and how do they exert it? Give specific examples. Describe the division of labor and specialization in your school. Is there a narrow or broad span of control? How much autonomy do teachers have to make their own decisions? How would you characterize the formal organization of your school? 2.Name the people who have informal authority but no formal authority? Where do they get their influence? What are the important informal norms in your school? How do the formal and informal leaders interact? Do they cooperate or compete? Give some examples. How much conflict exists between the formal and informal? Give examples of conflict. Describe the grapevine. How would you characterize the informal organizations of your school? W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011

25. Practical Imperatives Ensure that those with expertise make the important decisions: Knowledge rules. Substitute professional judgment for rules when possible: Judgment trumps rules. Initiate enabling structures: They facilitate positive school cultures. Avoid hindering structures: They frustrate professional judgment and teacher creativity. Anticipate the negative consequences of rules: Be prepared and flexible. Review and delete rules each year: The fewer the number of rules, the better. Know your informal school leaders: Informal leadership is an important complement to the formal. Balance formal demands with individual capabilities: Both are critical for success. Make the workplace interesting and challenging: Create structures that nurture creativity. Be mindful: Make mindfulness in attitude, organization, and behavior a habit of thought and action. Institutionalize structures that work: Change structures that don’t. Move from bureaucratic to professional control: Teacher judgment should eventually substitute for administrative control. Seek harmony between the formal and informal organization: Both are imperative for effective organization. W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011