1. 7
Blood 1

2. Circulatory System Overview
Consists of heart (pump),blood vessels, and blood
Picks up nutrients from digestive system
Exchanges gases with respiratory system
Delivers nutrients and O2 to every cell
Carries CO2 to lungs for removal
Carries wastes and excess water to urinary system
Carries metabolic wastes to liver for removal

3. The Human Body Respiratory system Digestive Urinary Circulatory system
Figure 7.1
Oxygen
intake
Elimination of
carbon dioxide
Food and
water intake
The Human Body
Respiratory
system O2
CO2
Nutrients,
salt, water
Water, salts,
metabolic waste
Digestive
system
Circulatory
system
Urinary
system
Metabolic
waste
Figure 7.1 The transport role of the circulatory system.
Transport
to and from
all cells
Elimination of
food residues,
metabolic wastes
Elimination of
excess water, salts,
metabolic wastes 3

4. The Components and Functions of Blood
Blood is a specialized connective tissue consisting of:
Specialized cells and cell fragments
Watery solution of ions, molecules
Three primary functions:
1. Transportation of nutrients, waste, hormones
2. Regulation of body temperature, water volume, pH
3. Defense against infections and bleeding

5. The Components and Functions of Blood
Plasma (makes up 55% of whole blood)
Water
Electrolytes
Proteins (albumins, globulins, clotting proteins)
Hormones
Gases
Nutrients and wastes
Formed elements (makes up 45% of whole blood)
RBCs
WBCs
Platelets

6. Table 7.1
Table 7.1 Composition of blood. 6

7. A table-top centrifuge.
Figure 7.2
Plasma (55%)
Whole
blood
Platelets and
WBC (1%)
Figure 7.2 Blood.
RBC (44%)
Whole blood.
Blood after being
spun in centrifuge.
A table-top centrifuge. 7

8. Plasma Consists of Water and Dissolved Solutes
Plasma: liquid portion of the blood
90% water
10% dissolved solutes
Proteins
Hormones
Ions
Amino acids
Carbohydrates
Vitamins
Metabolic wastes

9. Plasma Consists of Water and Dissolved Solutes
Plasma proteins
Albumins: maintain osmotic balance with interstitial fluid
Globulins: diverse group of proteins
Alpha
Beta globulins: important transport functions
Bind to lipid forming lipoproteins
HDL: high density lipoproteins
LDL: low density lipoproteins
Gamma globulins: antibodies which are part of the body’s defenses against infections
Clotting proteins

10. Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes) Transport Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide
Make up almost half the blood volume
5 million/mm3
Functions: transport oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2)
Packed with hemoglobin, a protein which transports O2
Hemoglobin molecule includes heme groups which each have iron atoms to which O2 binds
Origin: stem cells in the bone marrow
Life span: 120 days in humans
Control of production: erythropoietin (hormone)

11. Figure 7.3
Figure 7.3 Red blood cells. 11

12. Polypeptide chain Heme group with iron atom Figure 7.4
Figure 7.4 Hemoglobin molecule.
Polypeptide chain
Heme group with
iron atom 12

13. Hematocrit and Hemoglobin Reflect Oxygen-Carrying Capacity
Hematocrit: the percentage of whole blood that consists of red blood cells
Men: 43–49% Women: 37–43%
Hemoglobin measurement
Men: 14–18 gm% Women: 12–14 gm%
Low hematocrit or hemoglobin may indicate anemia
High hematocrit may be response to high elevation (less O2 available in atmosphere)
Very high hematocrit—risky because of increased blood viscosity

14. Red Blood Cells (RBC’s) Have a Short Life Span
Stem cells in bone marrow develop into erythroblasts
Erythroblasts fill with hemoglobin, mature into red blood cells, and discard their nucleus and organelles
RBC’s live for about 120 days
Aged RBC’s are removed by macrophages (large phagocytic cells) in the liver and spleen
Iron and amino acids from hemoglobin are recycled
Heme (minus the iron), is converted to bilirubin, discarded through digestive tract

15. Stem cells multiply and become specialized Mature blood cells
Figure 7.5
Stem cells are
located in red
bone marrow
Stem cells multiply and
become specialized
Mature blood cells
Erythrocyte
(red blood cell)
Erythroblast
Nucleus
lost
Neutrophil
Granular
leukocytes
Eosinophil
Myeloblast
White
blood
cells
Basophil
Stem cell
Monoblast
Monocyte
Figure 7.5 The production of blood cells and platelets.
Agranular
leukocytes
Lymphocyte
Lymphoblast
Megakaryoblast
Megakaryocyte
Platelets 15

16. RBC Production Is Regulated by a Hormone
RBC number maintained by negative feedback
Special cells in kidney monitor O2 availability—secrete hormone erythropoietin (EPO) if O2 levels are low
EPO stimulates stem cells in bone marrow—causes increase in red blood cell production
Some cases of kidney disease—inadequate EPO secretion—must be supplemented
Some athletes have abused EPO by injecting it to increase their red blood cell production
May increase viscosity of blood, making the heart work harder to pump it

17. O2 availability Increase Set point Decrease
Figure 7.6
O2 availability
Increase
Set point
Decrease
O2-sensitive cells in kidneys
respond to a decline in O2
availability by increasing
erythropoietin production
Increased number
of RBCs returns O2
availability to normal
Figure 7.6 Negative feedback control of the availability of oxygen.
Erythropoietin
stimulates increased
RBC production by
stem cells in
bone marrow 17

18. White Blood Cells (Leukocytes) Defend the Body
Arise from division of stem cells in bone marrow
Make up 1% of whole blood
Functions
Protection from infection
Regulation of the inflammatory reaction
Two general types:
Granular: neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils
Agranular: lymphocytes and monocytes

19. Granular Leukocytes Neutrophils Eosinophils Basophils
60% of circulating WBCs
First on the scene to fight infection by engulfing microorganisms
Eosinophils
2–4% of circulating WBCs
Defend against large parasites (worms)
Moderate the severity of allergic reactions
Basophils
0.5% of circulating WBCs
Histamine in granules—role in inflammation and allergic reactions

20. Agranular Leukocytes Monocytes Lymphocytes 5% of circulating WBCs
Leave the blood and transform into macrophages
Lymphocytes
30% of circulating WBCs
Play a large role in the immune response
Two types
B lymphocytes
T lymphocytes

21. Platelets Are Essential for Blood Clotting
Megakaryocytes arise from division of stem cells in bone marrow
Megakaryocytes in bone marrow break into fragments called platelets
Platelets play an important role in hemostasis
If blood vessel is injured, platelets initiate the clotting process
Platelets participate in the repair process

22. Hemostasis: Stopping Blood Loss
Three stages
1. Vascular spasm: constriction of blood vessels to reduce blood flow
2. Platelet plug formation: sealing of the ruptured blood vessel
3. Coagulation: formation of a blood clot
Blood changes from a liquid to a gel
Complex series of reactions involving at least 12 different clotting proteins in the plasma

23. A Blood Clot Forms Around the Platelet Plug
Damage to blood vessels initiates the process
Platelets release prothrombin activator
Prothrombin activator converts prothrombin (plasma protein) to thrombin (active enzyme)
Thrombin converts fibrinogen (soluble plasma protein) to fibrin (insoluble fibers)
Mass of fibrin, platelets, trapped RBCs forms blood clot
Clot contracts and tightens

24. Vessel injury. Damage to a blood vessel
Figure 7.8
Red blood cell 1
Vessel injury. Damage to a blood vessel
exposes the vessel muscle layers and the
tissues to blood. 2
Vascular spasm. The blood vessel
contracts, reducing blood flow.
Platelets
Figure 7.8 The stages of hemostasis. 3
Platelet plug formation. Platelets adhere
to each other and to the damaged vessel.
Fibrin strands 4
Clot formation. Soluble fibrinogen forms
an insoluble mesh of fibrin, trapping RBCs
and platelets. 24

25. Clotting Disorders Bleeding disorder
Hemophilia: deficiency of one or more clotting proteins
Hemophilia A—lack Factor VIII
Today, Factor VIII can be made by genetic engineering to supplement hemophiliacs
Some medications interfere with hemostasis
Aspirin

26. Human Blood Types
Blood transfusion: administration of blood directly into bloodstream of another person
Success depends on matching the blood type of the donor with that of the recipient
ABO blood types (A, B, AB, and O)
Rh (Rh-positive and Rh-negative)

27. Human Blood Types Antigen: non-self protein, foreign to the body
May be on a cell from another individual or on the cell of an invading microorganism

28. Human Blood Types
Antibody: a defensive protein made by the body, directed against specific antigens
Antibodies are gamma globulins, proteins found in the plasma
Many antibodies are directed against infectious microbes
Other antibodies may be directed against other antigens, such as those found on the cells of blood received in a blood transfusion
Antibodies may clump and inactivate antigen-bearing cells 28

29. Antibody binds to antigen. Antibodies ignore
Figure 7.11
“Self” surface protein
Foreign
cell
Antigen-antibody
complex
Antigen
Figure 7.11 How antibodies recognize and inactivate foreign cells.
Antibody
Antibody binds to antigen. Antibodies ignore
the “self” surface proteins but bind to the antigen
of the foreign cell, forming an antigen-antibody
complex.
Antigen-antibody complexes
clump together. Clumping
effectively inactivates the foreign
cells. 29

30. ABO Blood Typing Is Based On A and B Antigens
The antigen on the rbc surface determines the blood type
Individuals have A and/or B or neither antigen on their red blood cell surfaces (A, B, AB, or O)
Individuals have antibodies against the antigens NOT on their own red blood cells
If the recipient of a blood transfusion has antibodies against the donated cells, a severe, possibly fatal reaction may occur

31. ABO Blood Typing Is Based On A and B Antigens
Recipient must not receive cells that they have antibodies against
Individual with Type A blood (has anti-B antibodies): can receive A blood or O blood
Individual with Type B blood (has anti-A antibodies): can receive B blood or O blood
Individual with Type AB blood (has neither antibody type): can receive A, B, AB, or O
Individual with Type O blood (has both anti-A and anti-B antibodies): can receive only O blood
Type O donor—considered “universal” donor

32. Type A Type B Type AB Type O Red blood cells Plasma antibodies
Figure 7.12
Type A
Type B
Type AB
Type O
Antigen A
Antigen B
Antigens
A and B
Neither A nor
B antigens
Red blood cells
Plasma antibodies B A
Neither A nor B
A and B
Figure 7.12 Characteristics of the four major blood types of the ABO typing system, showing their RBC surface antigens, antibodies, and relative incidences among various populations.
Incidences:
U.S. Caucasians
U.S. African Americans
Native Americans
40%
27% 8%
10%
20% 1% 5% 4% 0%
45%
49%
91% 32

33. Rh Blood Typing Is Based On the Rh Factor
Rh factor: another antigen found on red blood cell surfaces
85% of Americans are Rh-positive (have the antigen)
15% are Rh-negative
These individuals will respond to Rh-positive blood by producing anti-Rh antibodies

34. Rh Blood Typing Is Based On the Rh Factor
Can be a problem when an Rh-negative women is pregnant with an Rh-positive fetus
Mother may produce anti-Rh antibodies that cross placenta and damage fetal red blood cells
Anti-Rh antibodies from mother cause hemolytic disease of the newborn Rh-positive baby
Risk much higher for second and subsequent pregnancies
Can be prevented by giving mother Rho-GAM (anti-Rh antibodies) during pregnancy and at delivery

35. pregnant with her second Rh-positive child, her immune system quickly
Figure 7.13
Placenta separating
from uterus
Anti-Rh
antibodies
Anti-Rh
antibodies
Anti-Rh
antibodies
Placenta
Umbilical cord
Uterus
RH
RH
RH
RH
RH
RH
Fetal red
blood cells
(Rh)
Maternal
red blood
cells (Rh)
Blood
flow after
pregnancy
Fetal
circulation
Maternal
circulation
Maternal
circulation
Fetal
circulation
Maternal
circulation
When an
Rh-positive
man fathers
a child by an
Rh-negative
woman, the
fetus may
inherit the Rh-
positive antigen.
Figure 7.13 How Rh factor incompatibility can affect a fetus.
During pregnancy or
more commonly at
childbirth, a small
amount of fetal
blood enters the
mother’s circulation.
Over the next several
weeks the woman
develops antibodies
and an immune
memory against the
Rh antigen.
When the woman becomes
pregnant with her second
Rh-positive child, her
immune system quickly
produces antibodies that
attack the fetus’s red
blood cells. 35

36. Animation: Blood Types Right-click and select Play

37. Blood Typing and Cross-matching Ensure Blood Compatibility
Determines ABO and Rh types
Procedure involves adding anti-A , anti-B, and anti-Rh antibodies to separate samples of blood cells being tested and observing for agglutination (clumping)
Cross-matching involves mixing donor cells with recipient plasma and recipient cells with donor plasma and examining each for agglutination
No agglutination in either indicates a “good match”

38. Blood being tested Antibodies Anti-A Anti-B
Figure 7.14
Blood
being tested
Antibodies
Anti-A
Anti-B
Type A
(Contains antigen A)
Type B
(Contains antigen B)
Agglutinated
blood
Type AB
(Contains antigens
A and B)
Figure 7.14 Blood typing for ABO blood types.
Type O
(Contains neither
A nor B antigens) 38

39. Blood Substitutes Why use blood substitutes:
Presence of transmissible diseases in donor blood
The right type of blood might not always be available
Limited storage of whole blood
Inability to meet demand for donor blood
Two types of oxygen-carrying blood substitutes:
Various modified hemoglobins in aqueous solution
Hemoglobin must be packaged in some way
Perfluorocarbons (PFCs) in aqueous solution can carry more oxygen than whole blood

40. Blood Disorders Infections Mononucleosis
Contagious Epstein-Barr virus infection of lymphocytes
Also known as “mono” or “kissing disease”
Flu-like symptoms
Blood poisoning: bacterial infection of blood
Also known as septicemia
May develop from infected wounds, burns, urinary tract infections, major dental procedure
May be life-threatening
Requires antibiotic treatment

41. Blood Disorders Red blood cells
Anemia: reduction in oxygen-carrying capacity due to inadequate number of red blood cells or inadequate hemoglobin
Iron-deficiency anemia: caused by inadequate intake or malabsorption of dietary iron
Hemorrhagic anemia: caused by blood loss
Pernicious anemia: caused by Vitamin B12 deficiency
Hemolytic anemia: caused by destruction of red blood cells
Anemia due to renal failure
Results from inadequate erythropoietin secretion

42. Blood Disorders White blood cells Leukemia Multiple myeloma
Forms of blood cancer characterized by proliferation of white blood cells
May be acute or chronic
Treatments may include radiation or chemotherapy to destroy abnormal stem cells followed by bone marrow transplant
Multiple myeloma
Form of cancer involving the proliferation of plasma cells (type of lymphocyte) in the bone marrow
Bone is weakened by the cancer

43. Blood Disorders Platelets Thrombocytopenia
Reduction in platelet number
May be caused by viral infection, anemia, leukemia, exposure to radiation, reaction to certain drugs
Unusual bruising and bleeding