1. Cardiovascular System: Blood
Chapter

2. Blood has several important functions and unique physical characteristics.
1. Transporting dissolved gases, nutrients, hormones and metabolic wastes.
2. Regulating the pH and ion composition of interstitial fluids throughout the body
3. Restricting fluid losses at injury sites.
4. Defending against toxins and pathogens
5. Stabilizing body temperature.

3. Blood is made up of plasma and formed elements.
Temperature: roughly 38oC (100.4oF)
Viscosity: 5X more viscous as water = more sticky, more cohesive and resistant to flow.
pH: slightly alkaline with pH between 7.35 and 7.45

4. Plasma, contains significant quantities of plasma proteins.
3 main types
Albumin = majority. Maintains osmotic pressure of plasma
Globulins: include antibodies and transport proteins
Fibrinogen: functions in blood clotting.
Liver synthesizes most of the plasma proteins.

5. Red Blood Cells 99% of the formed elements in plasma
Measured by hematocrit or % of whole blood volume occupied by formed elements.
Males have 5.4 million RBC’s / microliter
Females have 4.8 million RBC’s/ microliter

7. RBC’s Structure
Biconcave disc allows for large surface area for diffusion.
Flexible to squeeze through narrow capillaries
During their formation, RBCs lose most of their organelles including mitochondria
Don’t divide or synthesize any proteins.
Formed in the red bone marrow through erythropoiesis

8. Erythropoietin (EPO) stimulates the formation of RBC’s
Released by the kidneys when tissues are exposed to low oxygen levels.
EPO is released
During anemia,
When blood flow to the kidneys declines,
When oxygen content of the air in the lungs declines
When the respiratory surfaces of the lungs are damaged.

10. Hemoglobin Hb = 95% of an RBCs proteins Binds oxygen to an iron ion
Iron + oxygen give the blood a bright red color
Dark color when oxygen is not bound.
A low hematocrit, or a reduced oxygen-carrying capacity is a condition called anemia.
Anemia causes muscle fatigue, weakness, and a general lack of energy

11. Abnormal Hemoglobin
Read about thalassemia and sickle cell anemia on page 385 of your book.

12. ABO blood types and Rh system are based on antigen-antibody responses.
The presence of absence of specific surface antigen in RBC membranes determines your blood type
There are four blood types.

15. Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn
Sometimes the Rh factor of the fetus is different than the mother.
If the mother is Rh- and her child is Rh+, there is a chance that during delivery, the fetal and maternal blood may mix, exposing the mother to the Rh antigens of the baby. The mother will begin to produce anti-Rh antibodies.
These antibodies will cross the placenta and attach the RBC’s of the next Rh+ fetus, hemolyzing them.

17. White blood cells contribute to the body’s defenses
WBC’s = leukocytes
Larger than RBC’s
Have a nucleus and other organelles
Lack hemoglobin.
Defend the body against pathogens, remove toxins, wastes and abnormal or damaged cells.

18. WBC circulation and movement
Four characteristics
All are capable of amoeboid movement
All can migrate out of bloodstream through process of diapedesis
All are attracted to specific chemical stimuli (positive chemotaxis)
Neutrophils, eosinophils, and monocytes are capable of phagocytosis

19. Types of WBC’s Neutrophils: first to arrive at an injury Eosinophils
Attack bacteria by phagocytosis
Short life span (hours)
Forms pus at the wound
Eosinophils
Attack objects coated with antibodies
Increase in numbers during a parasitic infection or allergic reaction
Basophils
Small cells that accumulate in damaged tissues where they release heparin and histamine.

20. Monocytes Lymphocytes Large cells Aggressive phagocytes
Release chemicals that draw other WBC’s to injury
Lymphocytes
Migrate between the blood stream and tissues
Do not use phagocytosis
Some secrete antibodies
May be active during a viral infection.

21. Platelets function during clotting process
One of the formed elements of the blood
Formed as cell fragments from megkaryocytes in red bone marrow
Initiate clotting process and help close injured blood vessels

23. Hemostasis involves vascular spasm, platelet plug formation, and blood coagulation
Hemostasis is the process that halts bleeding and prevents the loss of blood through the walls of damaged vessels. At the same time it also establishes a framework for tissue repairs.

24. Phases of Hemostasis 1. Vascular Phase 2. Platelet Phase
Cutting the wall of a blood vessel triggers the contraction of the smooth muscles
Called vascular spasm
Lasts about 30 min.
2. Platelet Phase
Platelets begin to attach to sticky endothelial surfaces within 15 seconds forming a platelet plug.
3. Coagulation Phase
Begins at least 30sec after injury
Involves a complex series of steps leading to a blood clot

25. The Clotting Process
Cannot occur if plasma doesn’t contain clotting factors
During clotting phase these proteins interact in sequence or cascade
Extrinsic pathway begins in the wall of the blood vessel
Intrinsic pathway begins in the blood stream
Common pathway-both process join here through the activation of Factor X

27. Calcium ions and vitamin K affect almost every aspect of the clotting process.
All three pathways require the presence of calcium ions so any disorder that lowers plasma calcium ion concentration will impair blood clotting
Vitamin K must be present for the liver to synthesize four of the clotting factors so a deficiency of vitamin K inactivates the clotting system.