1. Cross-Cultural Differences in Development
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos

2. Outline Introduction Parenting Practices Infant Development
Moral Development
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos

3. Development
Ontogenetic Development: Development of an individual across the lifetime
Development occurs as the interaction between:
Biology
Environment
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos

4. Cultural Transmission
Cultural Transmission: Passing on culture to the next generation though teaching/learning
Observational Learning (Social Learning)
Guided Participation
Types of cultural Transmission
Vertical Transmission: From parents to offspring
Horizontal Transmission: From peers
Oblique Transmission: From other adult and institutions
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos

5. Cultural Transmission
Enculturation: Individual learns cultural practices simply by being encompassed in a culture
Socialization: Deliberate teaching of cultural practices
Enculturation and socialization result in behavioral similarities within cultures and differences between the cultures
Acculturation: Cultural transmission from a secondary culture
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos

6. Theories of self
Independent view of self: Personal distinctness, emphasizing unique personal attributes
Interdependent view of self: Individual is fundamentally connected to other people, individual interests are secondary to group needs
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos

7. Six Dimensions of Child Rearing (Barry, Bacon & Child, 1957)
Obedience Training: Degree to which children are trained to obey adults
Responsibility Training: Degree which children are trained take responsibility for tasks
Nurturance Training: Degree to which children are trained to care for the younger siblings and others
Achievement Training: Degree to which children are trained to strive for standards of excellence in performance
Self- Reliance: Degree to which children are trained to be independent of the assistance from others for supplying their own needs and wants
General independent training: Degree to which children are trained toward freedom from control, domination, and supervision
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos

8. Parenting Ethnotheories
Parenting Enthnotheories: Knowledge and beliefs about the domain of parenting
Beliefs, values, and practices of parent about the proper way to raise a child
Affection and warmth between parents and children
Amount of time breastfeeding
Development: When a child walks, talks, chooses friends
Why children misbehave and how to discipline
Amount of talk to children
Sleeping patterns
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos

9. Parenting Ethnotheories
Videotapes of children in preschool in Japan and USA were shown to teachers (Tobin, Wu, & Davidson, 1989)
Perspectives on class size:
US: Disapproved of the large responsibility on teachers by having a large number (30) of children in Japanese classrooms
Japanese: Disapproved of the small class size in the US because children would be unable to learn from others
Perspective on misbehavior:
Japanese: Children did not develop a healthy dependency on their mother.
US: Children had inherent problems
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos

10. Parenting Ehtnotheories
Conclusions
Parents and other caretakers influence their child’s development through socialization practices based on their cultural beliefs
Parents reflect the standard and expectations of their cultural environment in:
How they treat their children
How they perceive social situations
Parents do not tend to realize the extent to which they direct their children into cultural practices
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos

11. Infant Development
African Infant Precocity: African babies develop considerably faster in motor skills than Euroamerican babies (Gerber & Dean, 1957)
Losing reflexes, holding up head
Study Characteristics:
Different doctor to diagnose in different cultures
Limited to babies weighting more than 2500g
Follow-up studies found that African Infant precocity was slightly exaggerated
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos

12. Infant Development Comparison of Milestones
African babies sit up and walk about 1 month before Euroamerican babies
Euroamerican babies crawl before African babies
Cultural factors that may in influence infant development:
Amount that mothers work in late pregnancy
Anesthesia during birth
Massaging babies
Vertical position of baby while mother works
Conclusion: There is a link between parental ethnotheories, cultural parental practices, and infant development
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos

13. Parenting of Infants
Intuitive parenting practices: Cross-cultural similarity in parenting of infants
Attempt to capture and maintain the infant’s attention
Exaggerating facial expression
Motherese: Higher pitch and larger variations in pitch when speaking to infants
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos

14. Parenting of Infants Speech to children
Affect-salient speech: Songs, nonsense expressions, and incomplete statements
Empathize with needs of infants
Information-Salient speech: provide information about the environment with a child
Encourages individual expression
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos

15. Parenting of Infants
Frequency of mothers in western Kenya holding their infants had positive correlation with the child’s affective disposition at 12 years (Keller & Eckensberger,1998)
Frequency of mother-holding did not influence cognitive performance
Domain-specific consequences for early experiences
Conclusion: Different parenting practices do not have general development consequences, but the outcomes are specifically related to the parenting practices
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos

16. Attachment of Children
Attachment: Deep emotional bond developed between an infant and its primary caretaker
Attachment is the result of interactions between an infant and the mother
Secure attachment allow the child to explore the environment
Secure attachment to one primary caregiver is necessary for social and emotional development
Secure attachment assessed by the Strange Situation
Cross- Cultural equivalence of Strange Situation is questionable
Many societies use multiple caregivers
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos

17. Play Children playing is culturally universal Functions of play:
Promote cognitive development
Symbolism, Language use, problem solving, role-playing, creativity
Promote social development
Friendship, Social competence, Emotional maturity
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos

18. Play Cultural differences in play
Amount of time children spent playing
Age at children stop playing
Sibling involvement in play
Adulthood involvement in play
Children in complex cultures play more and play with more complexity
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos

19. Play
Chinese children spent more time playing with other children whereas American children spent more time playing individually (Haight,Wang, Fung, Williams, & Mintz, 1999)
When playing with toddlers, Japanese mothers focus more on social interactions while American mothers use play to teach knowledge of the world.
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos

20. Ecology and Child Rearing
Pastoral and Agricultural societies are high in food accumulation
Hypothesized to be highly conscientious, compliant, and conservation
Hunting and Gathering societies are low in food accumulation
Hypothesized to the highly individualistic, assertive, and venturesome
On a scale of compliance-assertion (Barry, Child, and Bacon, 1959)
Of the 23 societies ranking high in compliance, 20 were high food accumulating
Of the 23 societies ranking high in assertion 19 were low food accumulation
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos

21. Gender Difference in Child Rearing
Girls tent to be socializes more towards:
Obedience
Responsibility
Nurturance
Boys tend to be socialized more towards:
Achievement
Self-Reliance
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos

22. Gender Differences in child Rearing
Human Relations Area Files (HRAF)
Describes 863 cultures across the world
Universal Gender Rearing practices
Males: Self-assertive, Achievement-Oriented Dominant
Females: Socially responsive, Passive, Submissive
Research has found that these gender rearing practices are:
Almost universal
Almost never reversed
Size of gender differences range from very large to very small
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos

23. Gender Differences in Child Rearing
Universals in Division of Labor
Women tend to prepare food and care for children
Differences in Division of Labor
Degree to which women contribute to subsistence (Schlegel & Barry, 1986)
Women tend to have high contributions in agriculture and gathering societies
Women tend to have low contributions in animal husbandry, intensive agriculture, fishing, and hunting societies
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos

24. Gender Differences in Child Rearing
Women’s participation in subsistence tend to affect:
Adaptive Mechanisms
Polygyny, Bride-price, Birth control, Work training for girls
Attitudes toward women
Females relatively highly valued
Females allowed freedom
Less likely to viewed as object for male needs
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos

25. Child Rearing Conclusion
Some child-rearing practices are similar across all cultures
Child-rearing also differs from one society to the other
Universalist Perspective
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos

26. Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
Kohlberg stated that development of moral reasoning follows same sequence in all cultures
Differences in the rate of development and number of people who reached the highest levels
Cross-Cultural studies have provided support:
Invariance of the sequence of stages
First two level of reasoning of found in many societies
No evidence for post-conventional stage in any village cultures
Post-conventional reasoning appears to only result from complex urban societies
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos

27. Moral Development Research from other paradigms have found evidence:
Alternative post-conventional moralities based on natural law, justice, or family orientation as opposed to individualism
Right-based vs. Duty-based orientation
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos

28. Development Conclusion
The development of a child is influenced by:
Physical and social settings
Social interactions and environmental conditions and dangers
Child-care customs
Cultural practices and institutions
Caretaker psychology
Beliefs, values, and practices of parents
Different practices can promote or constrain development
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos

29. Revision Explain the six dimensions of child rearing .
Explain the concept of parental ethnotheories and how they can influence development.
What are some common and different parenting practices across cultures?
Explain how the three perspectives on cross-cultural psychology (absolutism, universalism, and relativism) relate to Attachment Theory and Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development.
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos