1. Summarize Intelligence Math Achievement Self Gender and Gender boundaries Peer Relationships Friendships Developing group Norms Sherif & Sherif Robber’s Cave Experiment Moral Development Family Parenting Styles Violence, Conflict, Divorce Sibling Relationships Schools Achievement and Adjustment Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

2. What IQ Scores Can Predict In general, IQ tests are fairly good predictors of success in school. Childhood IQ may predict long-term success in occupations that require abstract thought. Adult IQ scores are good predictors of success in job-training programs but not of actual job performance.

3. Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. In most parts of the world, children start formal education between ages 5-7. The transition to formal education is not always easy. Many have difficulty applying their informal knowledge to more formal classroom tasks. Decontextualized thought: A cognitive skill needed to solve problems that are abstract, self-contained, and removed from any immediate context.

4. Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Cultural Mismatch The format of social interaction expected at school may be unfamiliar to children from different backgrounds. White middle-class preschoolers are accustomed to being asked questions at home, test questions to which the adult knows the answers ( “ What color is that? ” “ What do cows say? ” ). A study found that black lower-class preschoolers heard more functional questions at home: analogy questions ( “ What ’ s that like? ” ) story-starter questions ( “ What happened to him yesterday? ” ) accusation questions ( “ What ’ s that all over your face?)

5. Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Cultural Differences in Math Achievement United States children do worse than children in many other countries on math & science measures. No one suggests American children have learning deficiencies compared to children in other countries. Researchers and teachers assume cultural differences in values & classroom practices must be the cause.

6. Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Latency period: Freud ’ s term for middle childhood, the period in which sexual urges lie relatively dormant. Industry vs. inferiority: Erikson ’ s term for the crisis of middle childhood, when the major challenge is to start mastering adult skills & feelings fostered by success & failure.

7. Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Sense of industry: In Erikson ’ s theory, the basic belief in one ’ s own competence, coupled with a tendency to initiate activities, seek out learning experiences, and work hard to accomplish goals. Middle childhood is marked by: forming a coherent self-concept major developments in peer relations growing understanding of emotions

8. Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. The Emergence of the Psychological Self Psychological self: A concept of the self that is made up of psychological characteristics, such as mental abilities and customary ways of feeling. Psychological self: A concept of the self that is made up of psychological characteristics, such as mental abilities and customary ways of feeling. Metatheory of the self: Children understanding of the nature of selves in general. Metatheory of the self: Children understanding of the nature of selves in general.

9. Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. The Development of the Social Self Social self: An awareness that the self is intimately tied to other people. Social self: An awareness that the self is intimately tied to other people. Social comparison: The tendency to use others as a source of information in evaluating the self. Social comparison: The tendency to use others as a source of information in evaluating the self.

10. Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. The Development of the Social Self Use of social comparison in evaluating the self depends on several things: decline in centration normative understanding of ability cultural context Source of photo: Microsoft Design Gallery.

11. 9-year-old: My name is Bruce. I have brown eyes. I have brown hair. I love sports. I have seven people in my family. I have great eye sight. I have lots of friends. I have an uncle who is almost 7 feet tall. My teacher is Mrs. V. I play hockey. I’m almost the smartest boy in the class. I love food. I love school. 11½-year-old: My name is Anne. I’m a human being…a girl… a truthful person. I’m not pretty. I do so-so in my studies. I’m a very good cellist. I’m a little tall for my age. I like several boys. I am a good swimmer. I try to be helpful. Mostly I’m good, but I lose my temper. I’m not well liked by some girls and boys. I don’t know if boys like me. Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

12. Piaget’s Theory ofMoral Development Young children judge on consequence Older children judge on intent In middle childhood standards can be very rigid Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

13. The Developing Sense of Gender Knowledge of gender stereotypes influences perceptions & memories. Elementary school children apply gender stereotypes to themselves more than preschoolers do. In general, boys are more strongly sex- typed than girls. Socialization factors (mother ’ s SES, etc.) influence the flexibility of gender-related thinking.

14. Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Personal Effectiveness and Self-Management Also developing in middle childhood is children ’ s belief that: they can master and prevail in challenging circumstances, and their successes come from resources within. As children develop a sense of personal effectiveness, they also develop capacities to cope with stress and emotional challenges.

15. Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Peer groups are important for several reasons: sheer amount of time spent with peers unique learning experiences challenging youngsters to develop interaction skills

16. Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Advances That Enable More Complex Peer Relations: greater ability to understanding others ’ perspectives, needs, & feelings ability to grasp more complex rules regarding interpersonal behavior growing ability to communicate feelings & wishes

17. Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Elementary school children can now communicate displeasure verbally. They (especially girls) are more likely to hurl verbal insults. Girls display less physical aggression than boys, but more relational aggression. Relational aggression: Aggression that includes attempts to exclude peers from activities damage their reputations gossip about their negative characteristics or behavior

18. Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5 Major Developments in Peer Relations 1. Children start to expect more from friends, including loyalty & understanding. 2. They start forming networks of friends. 3. They learn to coordinate allegiance to individual friends with their functioning in a group. 4. Adhering to peer group norms becomes increasingly important. 5. Clear boundaries for interaction with opposite sex develop.

19. Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Forming Loyal Friendships In middle childhood: relationships involve more reciprocal support & loyalty deepening of peer relations relates to advances in children ’ s thinking they come to understand conflict is part of friendship and may even strengthen it they behave differently with friends than with mere acquaintances

20. Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Forming Peer Groups Friendship networks are the hallmark of middle childhood. They tend to play with relatively stable clusters of friends. Boys often engage in joint building activities & competitions. Boys vie to be the leader or winner. Girls ’ groups are more cohesive. Girls orient more toward accord & intimacy.

21. Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Coordinating Friendship and Group Interaction Typically, friendship and group interaction supplement each other: Friendships promote integration into a group. Functioning in the group is a rich context for sharing between friends. Some pairs of friends steer away from groups.

22. Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Adhering to Peer Group Norms Peer group norms: Informal rules governing the conduct of children within a peer group. Peer group norms: Informal rules governing the conduct of children within a peer group. Strict adherence to peer group norms is common at this age. Peer group norms help maintain group harmony & cohesiveness. They are important for promoting moral development.

23. Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Maintaining Gender Boundaries Elementary school children are diligent in their efforts to ensure children do not stray too far across gender lines. Some cultures impose gender boundaries, like having the boys live in a separate village. A great deal of contact occurs, but within the limits of peer group rules. Children who routinely fail to maintain gender boundaries are less popular and are rated as less socially competent. Border work: Rituals of teasing & ostracism with which elementary school children maintain the boundary between gender-segregated peer groups. Border work: Rituals of teasing & ostracism with which elementary school children maintain the boundary between gender-segregated peer groups.

24. Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Status & Acceptance in the Peer Group Sociometric techniques involve asking children to name others they especially like or don ’ t like to play with. Accepted children are frequently named as liked. Those consistently named as disliked are characterized by researchers as rejected. Others who are rarely named as either liked or disliked are characterized as neglected. Sociometrics: A research technique used to measure peer status. Sociometrics: A research technique used to measure peer status.

25. Sociogram Ask children to name who they like and who they dislike. Peer AcceptancePeer Rejection Popular highlow Rejectedlow high Neglectedlowlow Controversialhighhigh Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

26. Unpopular children ’ s feelings about their low peer status depend on multiple factors. Intense loneliness depends on a combination of: isolation from the group friendlessness low peer acceptance not any one of these factors alone Clip art copyright © 2003 www.arttoday.com. Used with permission.

27. Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Aggressive children are more likely to be rejected. Combined aggression and rejection is strongly associated with maladjustment. Aggressive children who are not rejected are better adjusted. Rejected children spent the most time isolated from others or engage in negative behavior like aggression.

28. Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. During elementary school, a child ’ s popularity with peers becomes quite stable. It has implications for current and future mental health. Researchers have explored ways to improve a child ’ s status, but how long the effects of such interventions last is not yet known.

29. What was the purpose? Muzafer and his wife, Carolyn, conducted a study on the origin of prejudice. The experiment focused heavily on the concept of a ‘group’ and what a perception of belonging to a group can actually do to the relationships of members within it and their relationships with people outside their group.

30. Who was involved? Muzafer Sherif and Carolyn Sherif- psychologists that came up with the experiment. 22 boys between the ages of 11 and 12. Researchers were disguised as camp leaders.

31. What happened in this experiment? There were 3 phases of this experiment. 1. In-Group Formation 2. Friction Phase 3. Integration Phase.

32. Phase 1. (In-group Formation) Twenty-two eleven year-old boys of middle-class socioeconomic standing, and who are not school or social failures and who have similar educational level. These boys were taken into a summer camp in Robbers Cave State Park in Oklahoma where they were divided into two groups of eleven. The two groups created national flags creating a sense of belonging. They also bonded with each other and created group names. The groups must not be aware of the existence of the other group If the groups had met before, it would alter the results because they would likely be less hostile towards the other group later on in the experiment.

33. Phase 2. Friction Phase During this phase, the two groups were allowed to find out about the existence of the other group. Teams were forced to compete against each other in a number of camp activities. Such as, canoeing, camp fire building, and wood chopping, etc. The winning team, scoring the highest overall number of points, won a trophy. Greatly increased the antagonism between the two groups. Later on, name calling and fighting started and the singing of offending songs were also observed. After refusal of being in the same room, the researchers decided to end the second phase before further outbursts occurred.

34. Raided one another’s cabins Stole and burned one another’s flags Came to view one another as “stinkers” “smart- alecks” and “sneaks” Verbal prejudice became apparent, spiraling downward towards aggressive territorial violence The groups eventually had to be separated

35. How to create prosocial attitudes Propaganda: No Positive propaganda about one group directed to the other by the experimenters did not help Contact: No Doing non-competitive activities together (e.g., watching movies) did not help Cooperative action: Yes Experimenters arranged for camp truck to break down Both groups needed to pull it uphill Intergroup friendships began to

36. Phase 3- Integration Phase. This stage constitutes the most crucial and significant aspect of the study. The researchers forced groups together to cooperate and achieve a common goal. Both groups were taken to a new location and were told to fix their drinking water supply which had been damaged by “vandals”. The two teams worked together because a water supply shortage affected both groups immensely. The second activity the boys were told to watch a movie together. They successfully agreed upon one, and later ate dinner together without dispute.

37. What was discovered? During the first phase, the researchers discovered that when you place a group of strangers together, they take on specific roles within the group. Such as leaders, followers, etc. They bond together and become close friends (like a family). Second Phase- because of the bonding in group one, they had a sense of pride towards that team. When forced to fight against each other they found themselves in a battle. Each group believed their group was superior in all aspects. Third Phase- When two conflicting groups are brought together to achieve a goal that can only be accomplished by both groups working together. They work together flawlessly.

38. Emotional Development in Middle Childhood

39. Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. The Changing Understanding of Emotion During middle childhood, children: become increasingly able to understand the complexity of emotion-arousing situations take particular situations into account when determining an appropriate emotional response know a great deal about display rules for emotions These changes seem related to increases in true empathy for others.

40. Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Emotional, Social, & Cognitive Bases of Moral Development Advances in children ’ s thinking support deepening of moral concerns and greater understanding of moral issues. Consideration for other people ’ s feelings is a major factor in moral growth. The particular moral principles children adopt are largely a product of their culture.

41. Contexts of Development in Middle Childhood

42. Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. The Family Parent-child relationships change markedly during this time. Parents give children more responsibilities. Parents no longer explicitly, continuously direct children. The hallmark of effective parenting is keeping track of children ’ s whereabouts and providing supervision & direction when needed. Parents influence by how they supervise.

43. Parenting Styles Baumrind Authoritative Authoritarian Permissive Maccoby and Martin Frequency of conflict over goals Balance of resolution Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

44. Parenting Styles & Child Development Authoritative parents rely on discipline techniques based on reasoning. Their children score higher on agency. Girls high on agency tend to have argumentative interactions with parents, especially fathers. Argumentative interactions are not associated with increased agency for boys. Authoritative parents rely on discipline techniques based on reasoning. Their children score higher on agency. Girls high on agency tend to have argumentative interactions with parents, especially fathers. Argumentative interactions are not associated with increased agency for boys. Agency: The tendency to take initiative, rise to challenges, and try to influence events. Agency: The tendency to take initiative, rise to challenges, and try to influence events.

45. Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Several factors encourage harmonious parent- child relationships: understanding legitimacy of parents ’ authority grasping that parents have more experience grasping parents ’ decisions are usually intended for children ’ s own good empathy shown by caring, responsive parents

46. Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Family Violence, Conflict, & Divorce Harsh physical abuse relates to later negative behavior in children. Other violence in the family is associated with child problems including aggression and withdrawal. Ending parental conflict moderates negative consequences of divorce. Negative impact of divorce on girls may be more delayed.

47. Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Family Violence, Conflict, & Divorce Factors that promote good outcomes for children after divorce: ongoing contact with both parents an end to parental conflict cooperation between parents regarding child care custodial parent ’ s emotional well-being good relationships in any stepfamilies

48. Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Sibling Relationships Sibling and peer relationships differ in important ways: There is usually a greater age disparity between friends. One of the siblings tends to get more power and privileges. In middle childhood, friendships rarely cross gender boundaries.

49. Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Sibling Relationships Emotional Qualities of Sibling Relationships Competition for parents ’ attention and approval is common. Sibling strife based on social comparison intensifies after about age 8. Rate of conflict is higher with siblings than with peers. Younger siblings see older ones as controllers and facilitators.

50. Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Sibling Relationships Factors influencing quality of sibling relationships: closeness in age gender composition stress personalities preferential treatment by parents

51. Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Sibling Relationships Emotional ambivalence common among siblings offers important learning: When siblings fight, they cannot simply end their relationship. They can provide mutual support. Older siblings may be assigned the role of caring for younger siblings. Adopting role of boss may help older siblings practice leadership skills.

52. Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. The School School provides important context for socialization in cultural values. Family & school factors affect school achievement & adjustment. School achievement & adjustment predict later mental health. After-care arrangements are important, with impact depending to some extent on socioeconomic status.

53. Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. The Coherence of Development in Middle School Development in middle childhood is coherent for three reasons: 1. coherent sets of influences 2. coherence of individual adaptations 3. coherence of development over time