1. Chapter 13: Forests, Parks an Landscapes

2. Modern Conflicts over Forestland and Forest Resources
In recent decades forest conservation has become an international cause
NA Pacific Northwest
Tropical rain forest
Forestry has a long history
Silviculture- professional growing of trees
What should forest be used for?
Resources vs. conservation

5. Modern Conflicts over Forestland and Forest Resources
Forest and civilization closely linked
Wood major building material and source of fuel
Spiritual and aesthetic value

6. Modern Conflicts over Forestland and Forest Resources
Public service functions
Indirect benefits that people and the environment receive from forests
Improving watersheds
Wildlife habitat
Recreation
Climate

8. The Life of a Tree How a tree grows
Leaves of a tree take up CO2 and absorb sunlight
Water transported up from roots
Leaves carry out photosynthesis
Products = simple sugar and oxygen
Roots have symbiotic fungi that help extract minerals from the soil

9. How a Tree Grows Leaves and roots connected by two transport systems
Phloem- on the inside of the living side of bark, transports sugars and other organic compounds down to stems and roots
Xylem- farther inside, transports water and inorganic molecules upward to the leaves
Sun-powered pump

11. Tree Niches
Each species of tree has its own niche and adapted to specific environmental conditions
E.g., water content of the soil
Tolerance of shade
Some adapted to early succession, others to later stages

13. A Forester’s View of a Forest
Traditionally managed in stands
Stand- an informal term foresters use to refer to a group of trees
Usually the same specie and successional age
Even- aged stands
Uneven-aged stands
Forest that has never been cute is virgin forest
Old growth forest
A forest cut and regrown is secondary growth forest

14. A Forester’s View of a Forest
Rotation time- the time between cuts of a stand
Foresters and forest ecologists group the trees in a forest into
Dominants
Codominants
Intermediate
Suppressed
Site quality- max timber crop the site can produce in a given time

15. Approaches to Forest Management
Managing forests can involve
removing poorly formed and unproductive trees to permit larger trees to grow
Planting genetically controlled seedlings
Controlling pests and diseases
Fertilizing the soil

16. Clear-cutting
Clear-cutting- the cutting of all trees in a stand at the same time

18. Alternatives to Clear-Cutting
Selective cutting- individual trees are marked and cut (thinning)
Strip-cutting- narrow rows of forest are cut, leaving wooded corridors whose trees provide seeds
Shelterwood-cutting- practice of cutting dead and less desirable trees first and later cutting mature trees.
Seed-tree cutting- removes all but a few seed trees to promote regeneration of the forest

19. Experimental Test of Clear-Cutting
Scientist have tested the effects of clear cutting
Hubbard Brook experimental forest in NH
Erosion increased and pattern of water runoff changed substantially
Exposed soil decayed more rapidly
Stream water exceeded public health standards for nitrates

20. Experimental Test of Clear-Cutting
HJ Andrews Experimental Forest in OR
Increase in the frequency of landslides after clear cutting
C-c also changes chemical cycling in forests and causes the soil to lose chemical elements necessary for life

24. Experimental Test of Clear-Cutting
Experiments show
Clear-cutting can be a poor practice on steep slopes in areas of moderate to heavy rainfall
Clear-cutting on an appropriate spatial scale may be useful to regenerate desirable species
Where ground is level, rainfall moderate, and desirable species require open ground to grow

25. Plantation Forestry
Plantation- a stand of a single species typically planted in straight rows
Much like agriculture
Fertilizers added, mechanized harvesting
Offer a solution to the pressure on natural forests.
High-yield forests could provide all the world’s timber

27. Sustainable Forestry
A sustainable forest is one from which a resource can be harvested at a rate that does not decrease the ability of the forest ecosystem to continue to provide that same rate of harvest indefinitely.

28. What is Sustainability and How is it Applied to Forests
Two basic kinds of ecological sustainability
Sustainability of the harvest of a specific resource w/in an ecosystem (harvest of timber)
Sustainability of the entire ecosystem (forest as an ecosystem)
Lack scientific data to demonstrate that either type ever achieved in forests

29. Certification of Forest Practices
Compare the actual practices of a specific corporation or government agencies w/ practices that are believed to be consistent w/ sustainability.
Don’t know if beliefs are correct or practices really sustainable
Movement to call them “well-managed forests” or “improved management”

30. A Global Perspective on Forests
Vegetation of any kind can affect the atmosphere in four ways
1. By changing the color of the surface and therefore the amount of sunlight reflected and absorbed.
2. By increasing the amount of water transpired and evaporated from the surface to the atmosphere.

31. A Global Perspective on Forests
3. By changing the rate at which greenhouse gases are released from Earth’s surface into the atmosphere.
4. By changing “surface roughness”, which affects wind speed at the surface.

33. World Forest Area, Global Production and Consumption of Forest Resources
Countries differ greatly in their forest resources
Potential of their land and climate for tree growth
History of land use and deforestation

36. World Forest Area, Global Production and Consumption of Forest Resources
Developed countries account foe 70% of world’s total production and consumption of industrial wood products
Developing countries produce and consume about 90% of wood used as firewood
90% of world timber trade
Construction, pulp and paper
NA is the dominant supplier

38. World Forest Area, Global Production and Consumption of Forest Resources
In recent years world trade in timber has not grown substantially.
The fundamental questions are
Whether forests can continue to produce at least this amount of timber for an infinite period
Whether they can produce even more as the population grows

39. Deforestation: A Global Dilemma
Deforestation is estimated to have increased erosion and caused the loss of 562 million hectares of soil.
Deforestation in one country can affects countries downstream
E.g. Nepal and India

41. Deforestation: A Global Dilemma
Is forested area increasing or decreasing?
Information is lacking on which to base an accurate evaluation
Forest cover is large, often remote
Difficult to assess the total amount of forest area
Estimates suggest an annual loss each year of 7.3 million hectares

42. History of Deforestation
Has occurred in all societies from
Early Greece and Roman Empire
Prehistoric farmers in Denmark
Medieval Great Britain
Upon colonization of the New World
The greatest losses in the present century taken place in South America

45. Causes of Deforestation
Two most common reasons
Clear land for agriculture and settlement
To use to sell timber for lumber, paper products, or fuel

46. The World Firewood Shortage
In many parts of the world, wood is a major energy source.
As the human population grows, use of firewood increases.
Management is essential

47. Indirect Deforestation
The death of trees from pollution or disease
Acid rain
Ozone
Other air pollutants
All can increase susceptibility to disease
Global climate change may lead to
Major die-off and shift in areas of potential growth

48. Parks, Nature Preserves, and Wilderness
Landscapes may be protected in different ways
Government established parks, nature preserves, and wilderness areas
Private organizations buying land and maintaining it as nature preserves

50. Parks and Preserves Park- an area set aside for use by people
Nature preserve- may be use by people but primary purpose the conservation of some resource
Both create ecological islands
Island biogeography used in design and management

51. Parks and Preserves as Islands
The size of the park and the diversity of habitats determine the # of species that can be maintained.
The further the park is from other parks or sources of species, the fewer species are found.

53. Parks and Preserves as Islands
Most park boundaries have been arbitrarily set.
E.g., Lake Manyara National Park in Tanzania
Original boundaries did not include elephants entire yearly range
Elephants and farmer came into direct conflict
Boundary shifted

54. Brief History of Parks
The French work parc once referred to an enclosed area for keeping wildlife to be hunted.
E.g., Coto Donana National Park on the coast of Spain
Once country home of nobles
Now a stop over for 80% of birds migrating between Europe and Africa

57. Brief History of Parks First public park
Victoria Park in Great Britain, 1842
Concept of national park originated in NA in the 19th century
Yosemite designated in 1864
Preserve unique awesome landscapes
20th century emphasis more ecological

58. Conflicts in Managing Parks
Major conflicts generally have to do with
Size
What kinds and levels of access and activities will be available

59. How Much Land Should be in Parks
What percentage of the landscape should be in parks or nature preserves?
If parks are to function as biological preserves, they must be adequate in size and habitat diversity.

60. Conserving Wilderness
As a modern legal concept, wilderness is an area undisturbed by people.
New idea introduced in the second half of the 20th century
US Wilderness Act of 1964
First time wilderness recognized by national law
“land retaining its primeval character and influence”

61. Conserving Wilderness
1. Imprint of human work is unnoticeable
2. There are opportunities for solitude and primitive and unconfined recreation
3. There are at least 5,000 acres
“Wilderness” vs “Wildness”

62. Conflicts in Managing Wilderness
Legal definition given rise to several controversies
Desire to include more land as wilderness
Desire to develop this land and its natural resources
Can view goal of managing
1. To preserve nature undisturbed by people
2. To provide people w/ a wilderness experience