1. The Analysis of Sentence Structure
Lecture 6 Syntax
The Analysis
of Sentence Structure

2. Syntax
Language use involves a rather complex system of subconscious grammatical knowledge.
This is revealed most obviously in the study of how words are combined to form sentences.
In this lecture, we will consider the system of rules and categories underlying sentence formation in human language.
This component of grammar is called syntax.

3. Grammaticality
Like other linguistic systems, the syntactic component of the grammar is both creative and systematic:
i. Speakers of a language are able to combine words in novel ways.
ii. However, combination is not chaotic .
Thus, we accept and comprehend some sentences but reject others:
The student read a book.
*Book read student the a.

4. Categories
Words can be grouped together into a small number of classes.
These classes are called syntactic categories.
The classification assumes a number of factors:
i. meaning
ii. inflection
iii. distribution

5. Syntactic Categories Lexical categories Noun (N) John, girl, bravery
Verb (V) leave, freeze, remain
Adjective (A) good, tall, old
Preposition (P) on, in, at
Adverb (Adv) slowly, silently, now
Non-lexical categories
Determiner (Det) the, a, this
Degree word (Deg) too, so, very
Qualifier (Qual) perhaps, never, almost
Auxiliary (Aux) will, can, may
Conjunction (Con) and, or, but

6. Determining a Word’s Category
Some items can belong to more than one category:
I didn’t get much sleep (N) last night.
I couldn’t sleep (V) because of the noise.
The child stood near (P) the fence.
The runners will near (V) the finish line.
The end is so near (A).
What determines a word’s category?

7. Meaning
One criterion that helps determine a word’s category is the meaning it denotes.
Nouns name entities such as individuals (Ali, John) and objects (pen, book).
Verbs designate actions (run, speak), sensations (feel, hurt), and states (be, remain).
Adjectives designate a property or attribute of an entity.
Adverbs denote properties and attributes of actions, sensations, and states.
However, the association between meaning and word category is not always clear-cut:
Do abstract nouns (truth, friendship) name entities?
Are all action-naming words (ride, push) verbs?

8. Inflection
Compatibility with certain types of inflections is another criterion.
Noun plural –s
Verb past tense -ed
progressive -ing
Adjective comparative -er
superlative -est
However, inflection does not always provide the information needed to determine a word’s category: some adjectives are not inflected with the -er or -est suffixes and some nouns do not take the -s plural suffix.

9. Distribution
A word’s distribution, the type of elements with which it can occur, will help determine its category.
Noun determiner (a car, the boy)
Verb auxiliary (has gone, will stay)
Adjective degree word (very poor, too small)
(cf. *the speak, *will speech)

10. Phrase Sentences are not strings of words.
Sentences have a hierarchical design.
In this hierarchy, words are grouped together into larger structural unit.
These syntactic units, built around Nouns, Verbs, Adjectives, and Prepositions, are called phrases.

11. Heads Phrases are built around a two-level skeleton.
The lowest level is reserved for the word around which the phrase is built.
This element is called the head.
NP VP AP PP
| | | |
N V A P
books eat certain in

12. Specifiers Phrases can contain other elements besides the head.
These elements, called specifiers, have special semantic and syntactic roles.
[NP the books]
[VP never eat]
[AP quite certain]
[PP almost in]

13. Specifiers
Semantically, specifiers help make more precise the meaning of the head:
[NP the book]
specific entity (book)
[VP never eat]
non-occurring event (eating)
[AP quite certain]
to which extent a property (certain) is manifested
[PP almost in]
to which extent a relation (in) is manifested

14. Specifiers
Syntactically, specifiers mark a phrase boundary (the left boundary in English):
NP VP AP PP
/\ /\ /\ /\
Det N Qual V Deg A Deg P
| | | | | | | |
the book never eat quite certain almost in

15. Specifiers
The syntactic category of a specifier differs depending on the syntactic category of the head:
Category Typical function
Determiner (Det) specifier of N
Qualifier (Qual) specifier of V
Degree word (Deg) specifier of A or P

16. Complements Phrases can be more complex.
In addition to specifier and head, phrases may contain a complement.
Complements are phrases themselves.
The existence of their heads is implied by the meaning of the head in the main phrase:
[NP the books  about something]
[VP never eat  something]
[AP quite certain  about something]
[PP almost in  something]

17. Complements
Complements are attached to the right of the head in English: VP NP
Qual V Det N
| | | |
never eat a hamburger

18. Tests for Phrase Structure
How do linguists determine which words should be grouped together in phrases?
The existence of phrases as constituents can be independently verified with the help of special tests:
the substitution test
the movement test
the coordination test

19. Substitution Test
Phrases are considered to be syntactic units as they can often be replaced by an element:
[NP The students] decided to take the course when they read the syllabus.
(they = the students)
The students will [VP wear ties] if the teachers will do so.
(do so = wear ties)
They stopped [PP at the corner] and we stopped there too.
(there = at the corner)

20. Movement Test
A phrase forms a constituent because it can be moved as a single unit to a different position within the sentence:
They stopped [PP at the corner]
[PP At the corner], they stopped.
*At they stopped the corner.

21. Coordination Test
A group of words form a constituent if it can be joined to another group of words by a conjunction:
The children [VP read the story]
and
[VP learned a lesson]

22. Phrase Structure Rules
The grammar must ensure that specifiers, heads, and complements occupy the appropriate positions in phrase structure.
This is regulated by a grammatical mechanism called a phrase structure rule.
General format: XP  (Specifier) X (Complement) …
Examples: NP  (Det) N (PP) …
VP  (Qual) V (NP) …
AP  (Deg) A (PP) …
PP  (Deg) P (NP) …
Dots indicate that other complement options are available.
Parentheses indicate that specifiers and complements are optional.

23. Phrase Patterns X X X X /|\ /\ /\ | S H C H C S H H | | | | | | | |
/|\ /\ /\ |
S H C H C S H H
| | | | | | | |
always drink water on campus the man arrived

24. X’ Categories
Complements and Heads are attached to a level between the word and the phrase.
This intermediate level of structure is represented by the symbol X’ (X-bar).
Thus, all phrases have a tri-level structure:
head + complement form X’-level constituent
specifier + X’ constituent form XP

25. X’ Categories XP X’
Specifier X Complement
Head
Why X’ Categories ?

26. The Existence of X’
The same phrase structure tests can verify the existence of X’ categories.
That [N’ book about linguistics] is more informative than the one you’re reading.
That one is more informative than the one you’re reading.
Thus,
a. XP  (Specifier) X’
b. X’  X (Complement)

27. Sentences The sentence (S) is the largest unit of syntactic analysis.
Sentences are the product of the rule:
S  NP VP S
NP VP NP
Det N V Det N
| | | | |
A scientist discovered the answer

28. Sentences and XP Rules A sentence is not special.
It has internal structure, with a head, a complement, and a specifier.
The head is an abstract category called Infl, short for inflection, which indicates the sentence tense (past or non-past).
Infl, like other constituent heads, is obligatory.
This accounts for the fact that, in English, all sentences have tense.
Infl takes a VP as its complement.
Infl takes an NP as its specifier.
Therefore, sentences are consistent with the XP rules.

29. Sentences and XP Rules InflP (=S) NP VP Infl NP Det N Pst V Det N
A scientist discovered the answer

30. Sentences and XP Rules
Auxiliary verbs are inherently associated with a particular tense.
Examples like will, can, and may are necessarily non-past:
*He will/can/may work yesterday.
Therefore, auxiliary verbs should be treated as instances of the Infl category.

31. Sentences and XP Rules InflP (=S) NP VP Infl NP Det N V Det N
A scientist will discover the answer

32. Summing up Syntax is concerned with the study of sentence structure.
Words can be grouped together into a small number of syntactic categories.
There are some criteria to help determine a word’s category.
Sentences have a hierarchical design of phrases.
The existence of phrases as constituents can be independently verified with the help of special tests.
Phrases and sentences have internal structure, with a head, a complement, and a specifier.

33. Next Week Test
Good luck