1. Musical Elements Rhythm Pitch and Melody Form
Texture (density of sound)
Dynamics (loud and soft)
Timbre (tone color)

2. Terminology
For your assignments and reports, use the academic (and often Italian) terms discussed in class—avoid colloquial terminology like “hook,” “hit,” “outro,” “kick,” etc.

3. Rhythm: The flow of music through time
Primary concept in rhythm is the beat —Music may, or may not, have a beat
Music with a beat: Pulsatile
Beat: Steady pulses, heard or unheard that underlies pulsatile music.
Can be fast, slow, or in between
Not associated with mood—there’s no “happy” or “sad” beat. Keep categories separated from “pop” definitions
Music without a beat: Non-pulsatile
Music with a weak or unsteady sense of beat: Quasi-pulsatile

4. Beat, continued Tempo - the rate at which the beat passes
Standardized Italian terms
Tempo - the rate at which the beat passes
Specified by beats per minute or subjective terms:
Prestissimo—as fast as possible
Presto,—very fast
Allegro—fast
Moderato-moderate
Andante—walking speed
Largo—slow
Grave—very slow with “somber” feel
Accelerando - a gradual speed up of tempo
Ritardando or Rallentando - a gradual slowing down of tempo
Rubato – “robbing time”– expressive slowing and speeding slightly within a phrase.

5. Meter - an organization of beats, divisions of beats, and groupings of beats into distinct levels of the passage of time
A meter with hierarchies of two such as this is very common, but beats may be grouped and divided in different ways
Listen for the accent of first beat of a group to determine meter. How to listen for the beat????
If we perceive a grouping of two, we call it duple
If we perceive a grouping of four, we call it quadruple
In This example they are grouped into twos.
The beginnings of notes (the horizontal lines) nearly always coincide with one of these divisions:

6. Meter, continued
When beats are divided into two parts, they are called simple meters—these are most common
In this example, the beat is grouped into threes but divided into twos
This meter is called simple triple and is well known as the meter for the European waltz and many Latin styles derived from it.

7. More meter
triple meter - a meter in which the beats are grouped in threes
duple meter - a meter in which beats are grouped in twos
In the example below, the meter is compound (beat divided into threes) duple (beat grouped into twos).
simple meter - a meter in which the beat is divided into two
compound meter - a meter in which the beat is divided into three—HUH?
Example: “Yo no Compro Amores”
Example: “Altos del Rosario”

8. Compound Meter
The example below shows a compound meter in which the beat is divided by three and grouped into twos.
This meter is called compound duple
This meter is common in Latin America in the chilena, cueca, and other dance forms
If we perceive a grouping of four beats, the meter would be called ??
Ife we perceive a grouping of three beats, the meter would be called ??

9. Sesquiáltera
Sesquiáltera: The alternation of simple triple and compound duple meters 3:2
Bernstein’s “America” song exemplifies this rhythmic trait
When these two meters are combined, we still have sesquiáltera, but we also have polyrhythm: at its simplest, the layering of a duple and triple meter and their rhythms

10. Polyrhythm and African influence
The African influence of much Latin American Music can create intense polythythmic layering!
Example: Grupo Afro Cuba “Aguado Koloya”

11. Syncopation Metrical Stress and Syncopation
Syncopation - rhythm in which the metrical stress of a note is displaced in the meter so that the emphasis occurs on normally unstressed beats
The shifting of stress normally occurs one of two ways
a note which begins on a normally unstressed beat to extend through the next stressed beat
Emphasize notes on normally unstressed beats by playing them more loudly or giving them a harder attack

12. Dynamics Loudness in Music
Relative measurement rather than exact levels
Forte, piano, mezzo-
Dynamics – the use of loudness as a musical element
Crescendo - gradually getting louder
Decrescendo - gradually getting softer
Performers in most cultures control loudness as an expressive element
Artful contrasts of loud and soft create effective musical expression

13. Pitch and Melody What is Pitch?
Pitch - the quality of a note that distinguishes a high note from a low one
Frequency - the number of sound waves per second
Hertz (hz) Pitch is metaphor for hz
“Middle C:”
Definite vs indefinite pitch--Not all instruments have definite pitch
What are some indefinite pitch instruments?

14. Pitch and Melody, continued
The Octave
Interval - the distance in pitch between any two notes
Octave - the simplest possible ratio between two frequencies—2:1
Parallel octaves - two otherwise identical melodies sung simultaneously an octave apart

15. Pitch and Melody Tuning Systems
Tuning system – What pitches represented?
12-tone equal temperament: tuning system now standardized in the Americas and Europe, but…
Other cultures have different systems–more notes per octave, fewer, different intervals.
Indigenous cultures, especially, may use non-Western systems
Western scale with local, non equal temperament tuning system: “folk” intonation
Do not confuse with “playing out of tune”

16. More Pitch and Melody Tonality
Tonic - “home base” pitch, no matter its octave (sometimes the tonal center or key center)
Tonality - The feeling that a melody revolves around the central pitch
Tonal - music that uses tonality
Atonal – music without tonality
Probably safe to say that all Latin American music, with the exception of some 20th-century and later “art” music, is tonal

17. Chapter 2: Pitch and Melody
Modes
diatonic set - uses only seven of the available twelve pitches at a time, represented in one form by the white keys of the piano keyboard
Most common are major and minor
A common trait in Latin American Muisc is bi-modality—the alternation of a major or minor key with its relative minor or major key
Example: Andean music
Pentatonic - Modes with five pitches—common in many Latin American Cultures
Hexatonic - Modes with six pitches
Heptatonic - Modes with seven pitches
Scale - a convenient construction for illustrating the tonic and pitch set used in a piece of music

18. Chapter 2: Pitch and Melody
Melody: Sequence of pitches in rhythm:
All cultures have melodic music of some kind
Melody may not be important or present in some types of music
Concept of what makes melody beautiful differs from culture to culture
What makes melody memorable is more than simply sequence of pitches: all dimensions [Rhythm, for example] work together toward a single effect on the listener

19. Melody
A series of single notes that add up to a recognizable whole
Comprised of rhythm, pitch
Begins, moves, ends —can be short, long, anywhere in between; creates tension & release
Melodic movement
Stepwise vs. leap motion
Range
Climax
Examples:
Evil Ways by Carlos Santana
Somewhere, Over the Rainbow

20. Melody a a’ Made of phrases (parts) Cadence: Complete vs. Incomplete
Phrasing: balancing vs. non-balancing
Defining phrases: lower-case letters a a’

21. Melody
Balanced phrases—same number of beats in each a b

22. Melody
Phrases of differing lengths: non-balancing
The sequence a b

23. Melodic Motion and Countour
Graph of melody:
Characteristics of Melodies
Melodic contour and motion
Contour- general direction or shape of a melody over time
Motion- conjunct and disjunct

24. Pitch and Melody Ornamentation Motives and Themes
Enhancement or ornamentation of a melody without changing its overall character
Slur
Trill (and variants)
Glissando
Buzzing
Vibrato
Other stylistic devices
Motives and Themes
Motive- short melodic fragment that is repeated at certain points, often used as “cell” or “building block”
Ostinato: short repeated melodic phrase
Theme- entire melody recognized as a discrete entity

25. Form STRUCTURE (Form) Architecture, design, plan or layout of music
Structural determinants include
Repetitions and contrasts
Sectional changes
Variations
Understanding form enhances listening experience
At low level, signs of form: cadences in melody
At high level, signs: contrasts in loudness, harmony, tempo, instruments

26. Pitch and Melody STRUCTURE (Form) Phrases and Hierarchical Structures
Melodic phrase is the foundation of musical structures
Phrases can form parts of larger musical compositions
Some phrases simply strung together with no implication of higher grouping
When Phrases are part of a higher grouping, Use Uppercase letters to designate differing phrases
A, B, C, etc
Repeating Structures
Strophic - a song that repeats a group of melodic phrases over and over but with different words [eg: Hymns/folk songs]
A, A’, A”, etc
Verse-Refrain – each verse has different words with same music; refrain uses same words and music each time [eg: most western popular music today]
A B (refrain) A B, A, etc
Varying structure
A B A C A D, etc

27. Pitch and Melody STRUCTURE Variation
Transposition - playing the melody at a different pitch level
Modulation – Temporary change of key or mode

28. Chapter 2: Pitch and Melody
STRUCTURE
Other common ways to vary a repetition
increased or different ornamentation
different mode
different tonal center
different tempo or rhythmic density (number of notes per beat)
different instruments used
different texture

29. Poetic forms: décima A DON PORFIRIO VÁSQUEZ
Es el adjetivo justo  que merece un decimista,  zapateador, jaranista,  compositor de buen gusto.  Perdóname si te asusto  pero por Dios, no me atasques,  que aunque la lengua me masques  repetiré que es tan ducho  que sin esforzarse mucho  canta en el tono que rasques.
¡Criollo, no: ¡Criollazo!  Canta en el tono que rasques.  Le llaman “El Amigazo”,  Su nombre: ¡PORFIRIO VÁSQUEZ!
Cuando le llegue el momento...  —y esto no es un mal presagio—,  como póstumo sufragio  le haremos un monumento.  Ruego al que grabe el cemento  que con buen cincel recalque  y en un ángulo le marque,  donde la piedra resista,  para que por siempre exista  su nombre: ¡PORFIRIO VÁSQUEZ!
Escúcheme, por favor,  escúcheme aunque no quiera:  cómo canta marinera,  yo lo creo un trovador.  Soy su fiel admirador,  lo oí y le di un abrazo;  donde él fui pasito a paso  por sentir su melodía.  Le digo, desde ese día  ¡criollo, no: ¡Criollazo...!
Riqueza debía tener  mas Dios le dará otro premio,  pues por su alma de bohemio  como si fuera un deber,  gozó más con proteger  al que le tendió su brazo.  Hoy comentan este caso  los que de él han recibido,  y en un geto agradecido  le llaman “El Amigazo”.

30. Poetic forms: copla “La Guacamaya”–traditional, performed by Los Lobos
Pobrecita guacamaya ay! Que lastima me das
Poor Guacamaya, oh what a pity
Ay que lastima me das, pobrecita guacamaya
Oh what a pity, poor guacamaya
Se acabron las pitahayas ahora si que comeras
The cactus fruit are all gone now,
What will you eat?
Vuela, vuela, vuela, como yo vole
Fly, fly, fly ,oh how I flew
Cuando me llevaron preso senorita por usted
When I was taken prisoner, señorita, All because of you
Una guacamaya pinta le dijo a la colorada
The many-colored guacamaya said to the red one
Vamonos para tierra pa pasar la temporada
“Let us go to my land to pass the season”

31. Texture Texture describes the following attributes:
What instrument(s)/voice(s) are performing
The timbres of the instrument(s)/voice(s)
The relative roles of each of the instrument(s)/voice(s)
Changes in texture can articulate important sectional divisions
Musicologists & music theorists divide textures into four large categories:
Monophony
Homophony
Polyphony
Heterophony

32. Texture Monophony meaning one sound
one instrument playing one note at a time/voice singing melody
Below is a graph of a monophonic texture:
Monophony is extremely common throughout the world

33. Texture
parallel octaves – called monophony because singing in parallel octaves sounds virtually the same as a single melody
Parallel Octaves © 2013 Cengage Learning

34. Texture Homophony - a single melody accompanied by supporting harmony
In the graph of a homophonic texture below, the melody the voice sings is the principal melody associated with the song
The parts played by the guitar and bass accompany it.

35. Texture
Polyphony - several melodies of more or less equal focus at the same time
round or canon - one of the most familiar forms of polyphony in the West, (ex. “Row, Row, Row Your Boat”) in which singers sing the same melody at staggered time intervals.
imitative polyphony - one line imitates the melody in another line
Non-imitative polyphony - different melodies, guided by common structural principles, weave around one another
Common in non-Western music

36. Texture
Heterophony: Common in many cultures though not in the West—assumes more than one singer/instrument
Musicians often enrich a piece by adding ornamentation and variations to the melody simultaneously
Not strict monophony: Although we would perceive a single melody, each rendition would be different
Not polyphony: Only one melody

37. Texture Heterophony - simultaneous variations of one melody
the graph of a heterophonic texture below shows the performances by a south Indian singer (blue lines) and violinist (red lines)
although they sing and play the same basic melodies, their slight differences in notes and ornamentation create simultaneous variations.

38. Texture Other Textures The Drone Drums Many textures are hybrids
Drone - a long, constant pitch played throughout all or part of a composition
Ear does not recognize it as an independent melody
Drums
Very important for texture in some cultures
Drums and other nonpitched percussion instruments do not fit neatly into general classifications of texture
drum polyphony – where each individual drum has a line all its own, but the “melodies” of the drums are very limited, if they can be called melodies at all