1. Section 3 at a Glance Crime
Crime affects everyone in the United States, some as victims, some as criminals, and some as observers.
Crimes are grouped into five general categories: violent crime, property crime, victimless crime, white-collar crime, and organized crime.
Crime statistics are gathered and reported by two main sources, the Uniform Crime Reports and the National Crime Victimization Survey.
The criminal-justice system—made up of the police, the courts, and corrections—deals with crimes that have been committed and reported.

2. Crime and Criminals
A crime is any act that is labeled as such by those in authority and is prohibited by law.
An act that is immoral is not necessarily illegal.
Criminals can be any age, gender, or race, although people under 35 are more likely to be involved in crime.

3. Types of Crime Violent Crime Property Crime
Murder, forcible rape, robbery, and aggravated assault
Make up small percentage of total crime rates, but still alarming
One every 22 seconds in the United States
Most victims are African Americans
Majority of murders committed with guns
Property Crime
Burglary, larceny, motor vehicle theft, and arson
One every three seconds in the United States
People under 25 commit most crimes
Many crimes committed by those on drugs

4. Victimless Crime White-Collar Crime Organized Crime
Prostitution, illegal gambling, illegal drug use, and vagrancy
Although classified as “victimless,” often have negative consequences for society
White-Collar Crime
White-collar crimes include fraud, tax evasion, embezzlement, price-fixing, toxic pollution, insider trading, and political corruption
Corporations can be charged with crimes, not just individuals
Organized Crime
Crime syndicate: a large-scale organization of professional criminals that controls some vice or legitimate business through violence
Legitimate businesses can serve as “fronts” for illegal activities

6. Crime Statistics
The Uniform Crime Reports (UCR) is published annually by the FBI.
Uses data from local police departments
Factors that limit reporting of crimes:
Not all complaints make it into a formal report.
People less likely to make a report against friend or family member.
Police more likely to make an official report when crime is against a high-status person.
Victims less likely to report some forms of crime.
The National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) is published by the Bureau of Justice Statistics.
Uses data from crime victims about reported and unreported crimes
Relies on interviews with representative sample

8. The Criminal-Justice System
Police
Control over who is arrested
Police discretion: the ability to decide who is actually arrested
Racial profiling: the practice of assuming that nonwhite Americans are more likely to commit crimes
Courts
Hold trials to determine guilt or innocence
If guilty, assign punishments
Plea bargaining: the process of legal negotiation that allows a guilty plea in return for a lighter sentence
Corrections
Corrections: Imprisonment, parole, probation, community service
Functions: retribution, deterrence, rehabilitation, social protection
Recidivism: repeated criminal behavior
Juvenile-Justice System
Young offenders cannot be expected to be as responsible as adults
New laws ensure juveniles receive fair treatment
Some places treat young as adults

10. Sociology in Today’s World
Identity Theft
Identity theft occurs when a criminal uses another person’s name and financial standing to buy items or complete financial transactions. Victims of identity theft often lose their financial standings because of the crime.
Identity thieves may rent an apartment, get medical services, make large purchases, or use another’s name while being arrested.
Federal Trade Commission estimates there are more than 9 million cases a year.
Methods of theft include stealing wallets or phishing.
Prevention methods include shredding documents and monitoring bank statements. –

12. Functionalism and Crime

13. Functionalist Approach
Rather than starting with the individual as with biological and psychological theories, the functionalist analysis of deviance starts begins with society as a whole.

14. Crime as Inevitable
Durkheim argued that crime is an inevitable and normal aspect of social life.
Crime is present in all types of society, indeed the crime rate is higher in the more advanced, industrialized countries.
It is inevitable because not every member of society can be equally committed to the collective sentiments (shared values and beliefs)
Haralambos and Holborn (1995) 4ed., pg 389

15. Durkheim
Durkheim imagines a ‘society of saints’ populated by perfect individuals.
In such a society there would be no murder or robbery but there would still be deviance as the slightest slip would be regarded as a serious offence and would attract strong disapproval.
Haralambos and Holborn (1995) 4ed., pg 389

16. Crime as functional Crime is not only inevitable – it is functional.
Durkheim argued it only becomes dysfunctional when it its rate is unusually high or low.
He argues that all social change begins with some form of deviance.
If collective sentiments are too strong – there will be little deviance and little change or progress.
Haralambos and Holborn (1995) 4ed., pg 389

17. Crime as functional
Conversely if there is little collective sentiment, there will be too much crime and deviance and individuality rises and the status quo breaks down.
This is what Durkheim referred to as anomie – the loss of shared and guiding principles and norms.

18. Crime as Functional
Durkheim also suggested that crime strengthens social cohesion
By publically condemning those who have broken significant rules we are aware of the norms and values and the limits of toleration and unite against the condemned
The public response to crime and deviance is what is functional as it reinforces social solidarity and integrates society
Watch Chris Livesey clip

19. The Function of Punishment
According to Durkheim, the function of punishment is not remove crime, but to ‘heal the wounds done to the collective sentiments’.
Without punishment – the collective sentiments would lose their force and strength
For Durkheim – crime and punishment are both inevitable and functional.
Haralambos and Holborn (1995) 4ed., pg 389

20. Albert Cohen
Albert K. Cohen identified two possible functions of deviance:
A safety valve – deviance provides a relatively harmless expression of discontent. For example, prostitution performs a safety valve function without threatening the institution of the family.
Certain deviant acts also act as warning devices to indicate an aspect of society is malfunctioning. For example, truancy in schools may reveal unsuspected causes of discontent leading to changes.
Haralambos and Holborn (1995) 4ed., pg 390

21. Criticisms of Durkheim
Durkheim didn’t explain why some groups were more prone to deviance than others or why certain forms of deviance seem to be associated with certain groups.
It was Robert K Merton who provided these answers within a functionalist framework.

22. Robert K Merton (1930s)
Merton argued that deviance resulted from the culture and structure of society itself (structuralist).
He begins from the standard functionalist position of value consensus – that is, all members of society share the same values.
According to Merton culture, especially Western, attaches great importance to the values of competition, success and wealth.

23. Social Structure and Anomie
Since members of society are placed in different positions in the social structure (e.g. they differ in terms of class position), they do not have the same opportunity of realizing the shared values.
This situation can generate anomie and deviance.
He refers to this as strain theory

24. Strain Theory
Merton highlights that there is a strain between the cultural goals of a society (in his study the American Dream) and the legitimate means to achieve these goals.
Those who are at the bottom of the ladder find it hardest to succeed, therefore they are the ones who are more likely to seek alternative routes to success.

25. Varieties of Deviant Responses
Merton identifies five ways in which individuals may respond to the strain between goals and the means of achieving them in society:
Conformity
Most of the population cope by doing their best and making the most of what society offers them

26. Sir Allen Stanford was accused in connection with an $8bn (£5
Sir Allen Stanford was accused in connection with an $8bn (£5.6bn) investment fraud.
Innovation
Commitment to cultural goals may remain strong, but some people reject the conventional means of acquiring wealth and turn to illegal means
Ritualism
Some people have lost sight of material goals, but derive satisfaction from fairly meaningless jobs

27. Retreatism
A small number of people reject both the goals and the means, by dropping out of society
Rebellion
People may rebel and seek to replace shared goals and institutional means with more radical alternatives, and may use violent methods to achieve this

28. What Is Social Control?
Internal social control takes place when individuals internalize norms and values and follow those norms and values in their lives.
External social control involves negative sanctions that proscribe certain behaviors and punish rule breakers.

29. Functionalist Perspective
Deviance serves three functions:
Deviance clarifies rules.
Deviance unites a group.
Deviance promotes social change.

30. Symbolic Interactionism / Labelling Theory
No actions are by nature criminal or deviant – it depends on the norms of the society and the reaction of members of society of society in different situations and contexts.

31. Howard Becker States there is no such thing as a deviant act.
No act is inherently criminal or deviant in itself, in all situations and at all times.
An act only becomes criminal or deviant when others label it as such.

32. Labelling and Power
The social construction of deviance requires two activities:
One group which normally lacks power, behaves in a particular way.
Another group with more power, responds negatively to it and labels it as criminal.
Becker claims a powerful groups create rules or laws to define what counts as deviance and labels those who fail to conform as criminals or outlaws (outsiders)

33. Edwin Lemert Distinguished between primary and secondary deviance
Primary deviance is insignificant deviant acts that have not been publicly labelled.
Secondary deviance is the result of societal reaction – of labelling.
Secondary deviance leads to stigmatization where people are shunned and excluded from normal society.

34. Secondary Deviance
Lemert asserts that the criminal label can become a master status where society interprets all actions and motives within the context of the label.
Secondary deviance leads to prejudice, discrimination and produce a self-fulfilling prophecy and the labelled person may seek refuge with other people branded with a similar label.
Think of the consequences for sex offenders and ex-cons.