1. The Raw Materials of Biotechnology
Chapter 2

2. Learning Outcomes
Identify the levels of biological organization and explain their relationships
Describe cell structure and its significance in biotechnology research and product development
Discuss the types of organisms researched and the types of cells grown and studied in biotechnology facilities plus the products with which they are associated
Distinguish between the cellular organization of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
List the four main classes of macromolecules and describe their structure and function
Define genetic engineering and identify products created with this technology
Explain the Central Dogma of Biology and its importance in genetic engineering

3. 2.1 Organisms and Their Components
To manufacture biotechnology products, biotechnicians must work with organisms and their components.
These are the “raw materials” of biotechnology.

4. Levels of Biological Organization
The Living Condition
Levels of Biological Organization
Living things include:
Plants
Animals
Bacteria
Fungi
Protozoans
Characteristics of life:
Growth
Reproduction
Response to stimuli
Breakdown of food molecules
Production of waste products
Cells of multicellular organisms are usually grouped into functional units:
Tissues
Organs
Cells are the smallest units of life. Some cells contain even smaller, nonliving units.

5. Vocabulary
Fluorometer – an instrument that measures the amount or type of light emitted
Organism – a living thing
Cell – the smallest unit of life that makes up all living organisms
Escerichia coli - a bacterium that is commonly used by biotechnology companies for the development of products
Multicellular – composed of more than one cell
Cytology – cell biology
Anatomy – the structure and organization of living things
Physiology – the processes and functions of living things
Respiration – the breaking down of food molecules with the result of generating energy for the cell
Unicellular – composed of one cell
Tissue – a group of cells that function together (eg, muscle tissue or nervous tissue)
Organ – tissues that act together to form a specific function in an organism (eg, stomach that breaks down food)

6. Vocabulary
Proteins – one of the four classes of macromolecules; folded, functional polypeptides that conduct various functions within and around a cell (eg, adding structural support, catalyzing reactions, transporting molecules)
Eukaryotic/eukaryote – a cell that contains membrane-bound organelles
Protist – an organism belonging to the Kingdom Protista, which includes protozoans, slime molds, and certain algae
Organelles – specialized microscopic factories, each with specific jobs in a cell
Mitochondria – membrane-bound organelles that are responsible for generating cellular energy
Sugar – a simple carbohydrate molecule composed of hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen
Starch – a polysaccharide that is composed of many glucose molecules
Nucleic acid – a class of macromolecules that directs the synthesis of all other cellular molecules; often referred to as “information-carrying molecules”
Lipids – one of the four classes of macromolecules; includes fats, waxes, steroids, and oils
Pancreas – an organ that secretes digestive fluids as well as insulin
Hormone – a molecule that acts to regulate cellular functions

7. 2.1 Review Questions
Give an example of a plant that has been produced by biotechnology.
Knowledge of what other disciplines of science will improve the understanding of biotechnology?
Describe two characteristics of living things.
Which of the following is considered to be “alive”: organs, molecules, atoms, cells, or organisms?

8. 2.2 Cellular Organization and Process
Cells produce different molecules.
Hundreds of different molecules can be produced.
The Structure of Cells
Cell walls
Cellulose fibers
Plasma membrane
Nucleus

9. Animal cell. Animal cells do not have a cell wall and, thus, do not have a rigid cell boundary. The shapes of animal cells are quite diverse due to the flexibility of the outer membrane and the response when cells touch each other.
Plant cell. Most plant cells contain chloroplasts and a rigid cell wall. Animal cells do not possess cell walls.

10. The Central Dogma of Biology
The Central Dogma of Biology. The Central Dogma of Biology states that DNA codes for RNA and that RNA codes for proteins (DNA -> mRNA -> proteins). Once scientists had described the Central Dogma, they could propose and test strategies for manipulating protein production by manipulating DNA and RNA codes. Moving genes into cells to produce new proteins is the basic principle in genetic engineering.

11. Each rod-shaped structure in this electron micrograph is an E
Each rod-shaped structure in this electron micrograph is an E. coli cell. E. coli cells are simple prokaryotes with no membrane-bound organelles, such as mitochondria or chloroplasts.
Shown in cell culture, these CHO cells are a common mammalian cell line used to manufacture recombinant protein.

12. Types of Cells Used in Biotechnology
Plant cells
Animal cells
Bacteria cells
Fungal cells

13. Vocabulary
Chlorophyll – the green-pigmented molecules found in plants; used for photosynthesis (production of chemical energy from light energy)
Photosynthesis – a process by which plants or algae use light energy to make chemical energy
Chloroplast – the specialized organelle in plants responsible for photosynthesis (production of chemical energy from light energy)
Cytoplasm – a gel-like liquid of thousands of molecules suspended in water, outside the nucleus
Lysosome – a membrane-bound organelle that is responsible for the breakdown of cellular waste
Ribosome – the organelle in a cell where proteins are made
Cell wall – a specialized organelle surrounding the cells of plants, bacteria, and some fungi; gives support around the outer boundary of the cell
Cellulose – a structural polysaccharide that is found in plant cell walls
Plasma membrane – a specialized organelle of the cell that regulates the movement of materials into and out of the cell
Glucose – a 6-carbon sugar that is produced during photosynthesis reactions; usual form of carbohydrate used by animals, including humans

14. Vocabulary
Adenosine triphosphate – a nucleotide that serves as an energy storage molecule
Nucleus – a membrane-bound organelle that encloses the cell’s DNA
Chromosomes – the long strands of DNA intertwined with protein molecules
Enzyme – a protein that functions to speed up chemical reactions
Pigments – the molecules that are colored due to the reflection of specific wavelengths
Messenger RNA (mRNA) – a class of RNA molecules responsible for transferring genetic information from the chromosomes to ribosomes where proteins are made; often abbreviated mRNA
Amino acids – the subunits of proteins; each contains a central carbon atom attached to an amino group (-NH2), a carboxyl group (-COOH), and a distinctive “R” group
Polypeptides – a strand of amino acids connected to each other through peptide bonds
Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) – an animal cell line commonly used in biotechnology studies
Vero cells – African green monkey kidney epithelial cells
HeLa cells – human epithelial cells
Prokaryotic/prokaryote – a cell that lacks membrane-bound organelles

15. 2.2 Review Questions
Which of the follow structures are found in prokaryotic cells: a nucleus, ribosomes, mitochondria, a plasma membrane, or one or more chromosomes?
Which of the following structures are found in eukaryotic cells: a nucleus, ribosomes, mitochondria, a plasma membrane, or one or more chromosomes?
Describe the relationship between chromosomes, mRNA, and proteins.
Explain how so many cells from the same organism can look so different from each other.

16. 2.3 The Molecules of Cells
Engineered molecules are the basis of many biotechnology products.
Cells are composed of a variety of molecules.
Many molecules found in cells are much larger than atoms.
Very large molecules are found in structural components.

17. Carbohydrates Polysaccharides Monosaccharides
Carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
Ratio 1:2:1
Polysaccharides
Excellent structural and energy-storing molecules
Plants store glucose in starch molecules
Monosaccharides
Monomer units that cells use to build polysaccharides
Most well known is glucose; an energy molecule

18. Structural Formula of Amylopectin
Structural Formula of Amylopectin. Amylopectin is one form of plant starch, and amylose is another. Plant starch, such as corn starch, is a key ingredient in many foods.

19. Structural Formula Glucose
Structural Formula Glucose. Glucose is a 6-carbon sugar (C6H12O5) produced by plants during photosynthesis. Most plants use glucose as an energy source.

20. Structural Formula of 5-carbon Sugars
Structural Formula of 5-carbon Sugars. Deoxyribose (left) and ribose (right) are structural 5-carbon sugars found in the nucleic acids, DNA and RNA, respectively. Do you see the difference in their structure?

21. Disaccharides
Produced when enzymes form a bond between two monosacchrides
Sucrose is made when fructose and glucose are chemically combined
Lipids
Often referred to as hydrocarbons
Three groups of lipids
Triglycerides
Phospholipids
Steroids

22. Structural Formula of Maltose
Structural Formula of Maltose. Maltose is a disaccharide composed of two glucose molecules bound at carbon No.1 and carbon No.4. When organisms digest maltose, the bond holding the glucose monomers together is broken and energy is released.

23. Proteins Nucleic Acids The most important of the cellular molecules
Nine different categories of proteins
Structural
Enzyme
Transport
Contractile
Hormone
Antibody
Pigment
Recognition
Toxins
A typical cell produces more than 2000 proteins
Amino acids are the monomers of proteins
There are 20 different amino acids found in proteins
The fourth major group of macromolecules
Two types of nucleic acids
DNA
RNA

24. Polypeptide Strand. A polypeptide strand is made of amino acids connected to each other through peptide bonds. A folded, functional polypeptide chain is called a protein. Each protein has a specific amino acid sequence and folding pattern.

25. Two Nucleotides. A nucleotide is a molecule composed of a nitrogenous base (in pink), a 5-carbon sugar (in yellow), and a phosphate group (in blue).

26. Vocabulary
Macromolecule – a large molecule usually composed of smaller repeating units chained together
Organic – molecules that contain carbon and are only produced in living things
Carbohydrates – one of the four classes of macromolecules; organic compounds consisting of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, generally in a 1:2:1 ratio
Cytoskeleton – a protein network in the cytoplasm that gives the cell structural support
Monomers – the repeating units that make up polymers
Polymer – a large molecule made of many repeating subunits
Monosaccharide – the monomer unit that cells use to build polysaccharides; also known as a “single sugar” or “simple sugar”
Disaccharide – a polymer that consists of two sugar molecules
Polysaccharide – a long polymer composed of many simple sugar molecules (usually glucose or a variation of glucose)
Fructose – a 6-carbon sugar found in high concentration in fruits; also called fruit sugar
Sucrose – a disaccharide composed of glucose and fructose; also called table sugar
Lactose – a disaccharide composed of glucose and galactose; also called milk sugar
Amylose – a plant starch with unbranched glucose chains

27. Vocabulary Amylopectin – a plant starch with branched glucose chains
Glycogen – an animal starch with branched glucose chains
Cellular respiration – the process by which cells break down glucose to create other energy molecules
Deoxyribose – the 5-carbon sugar found in DNA molecules
Hydrophobic – repelled by water
Triglycerides – a group of lipids that includes animal fats and plant oils
Ribose – the 5-carbon sugar found in RNA molecules
Phospholipids – a class of lipids that are primarily found in membranes of the cell
Hydrophilic – having an attraction for water
Steroids – a group of lipids whose functions include acting as hormones (testosterone and estrogen), venoms, and pigments
R group – the chemical side-group on an amino acid; in nature, there are 20 different R groups that are found on amino acids
Ribonucleic acid – the macromolecule that functions in the conversion of genetic instructions (DNA) into proteins
Nucleotides – the monomer units of nucleic acids

28. 2.3 Review Questions
Which of the following are monosaccharides: cellulose, sucrose, glucose, lactose, fructose, or amyolpectin?
Which of the following molecules are proteins that function as hormones: estrogen, insulin, human growth hormone, testosterone, or cholesterol?
What distinguishes one amino acid from another?
How are the terms nucleotide, nitrogenous base, and nucleic acid related to each other?

29. 2.4 The “New” Biotechnology
The most significant breakthrough came when scientists learned how to move pieces of DNA within and between organisms.
The first genetic engineering occurred in 1973.
The first genetically engineered product to reach the marketplace was human insulin.

30. 2.4 Review Questions
What term is used to describe DNA that has been produced by cutting and pasting together pieces of DNA from two different organisms?
What organism was the first to be genetically engineered?
What was the first commercial genetically engineered product?

31. Questions and Comments?