Chapter 1: An Introduction to the Human Body

Chapter 1: An Introduction to the Human Body
Copyright 2009, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Anatomy and Physiology Defined
Two branches of science that deal with body’s parts & function Anatomy – study of internal & external structures and the physical relationship between body parts (“what are things called?”) rely on observation & dissection Imaging techniques Physiology- The science of body functions (“how do they work?”) rely on experimentation All specific functions are performed by specific structures. Structure, therefore, determines function. Copyright 2009, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Branches of Anatomy Gross or macroscopic
- surface: study of general form (morphology) - regional: superficial and internal features in a specific body area - systemic: structure of major organ systems Microscopic (histology) anatomy - cytology Developmental - from conception to physical maturity Comparative – anatomical organization of different animals Clinical – anatomical features that undergo changes during illness Radiographic – structures visualized by imaging techniques - cross-sectional Surgical – studies landmarks important for surgery

Microscopic Anatomy

Subspecialties of Anatomy and Physiology

Levels of Organization
Organism Level Organ System Level Cardiovascular Endocrine Nervous Muscular Skeletal Integumentary Lymphatic Respiratory Digestive Urinary Reproductive The heart Organ Cardiac muscle tissue Tissue Level Heart muscle cell Atoms in combination Protein filaments Cellular Level Complex protein molecule Chemical or Molecular Levels Levels of Organization

Levels of Organization
Chemical  Cellular  Tissue  Organ  Organ System  Organism Chemical Level: atoms  molecules Cellular Level: smallest unit of life Tissue Level: group of similar cells that perform a common function Organ Level: group of 2 or more tissue types that together perform complex physiological processes Organ System Level: various organs with similar or related functions that work together to accomplish a common purpose Organismal Level- result of all simpler levels working together to sustain life

Levels of structural organization
CHEMICAL LEVEL Basic level Atoms the smallest unit of matter Essential atoms for life include carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), calcium (Ca), and sulfur Molecules two or more atoms joined together Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) Glucose CELLULAR LEVEL Molecules combine to form cells Cells are the basic structural & functional units of an organism Many kinds of cells in the body Muscle cells, nerve cells, epithelial cells, etc. Copyright 2009, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

TISSUE LEVEL Tissues are groups of cells and materials surrounding them Four basic types: Epithelial Connective Muscular Nervous ORGAN LEVEL Organs are structures that are composed of two or more different types of tissues Specific functions and recognizable shapes Examples: Heart, lungs, kidneys,stomach Copyright 2009, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

SYSTEM LEVEL A system consists of related organs with a common function Organ-system level Digestive system breaks down and absorbs food It includes organs such as the mouth, small and large intestines, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas Eleven systems of the human body ORGANISMAL LEVEL An organism or any living individual All parts of the body functioning together Copyright 2009, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

The Integumentary System The Skeletal System
LE 1-6 a,b Epidermis & associated glands Hair Fingernail Protects against environmental hazards; helps control body temperature The Integumentary System Supporting bones (hip) Provides support; protects tissues; stores minerals; forms blood cells The Skeletal System Skull Lower limb bones Upper limb Supporting bones (scapula and clavicle) Sternum Vertebrae Ribs Sacrum

The Nervous System The Muscular System LE 1-6 c,d
Allows for locomotion; provides support; produces heat The Muscular System Axial muscles Appendicular Directs immediate responses to stimuli; usually by coordinating the activities of other organ systems The Nervous System Peripheral nerves Spinal cord Brain

The Cardiovascular System The Endocrine System
LE 1-6 e,f Transports cells and dissolved materials, including nutrients, wastes, and gases The Cardiovascular System Capillaries Heart Vein Artery Directs long-term changes in activities of other organ systems The Endocrine System Ovary in female Thyroid gland Pituitary gland Pancreas Testis in male Suprarenal Parathyroid gland Pineal gland Thymus

The Lymphoid System The Respiratory System
LE 1-6 g,h Defends against infection and disease; Returns tissue fluid to the bloodstream The Lymphoid System Spleen Thymus Lymphatic vessel Lymph nodes Delivers air to sites where gas exchange can occur between the air and circulating blood The Respiratory System Nasal cavity Sinus Larynx Bronchi Lung Pharynx Trachea Diaphragm

Processes food and absorbs nutrients Eliminates excess water, salts,
LE 1-6 i,j Processes food and absorbs nutrients The Digestive System Pharynx Salivary gland Pancreas Stomach Small intestine Large intestine Liver Gallbladder Esophagus Anus Eliminates excess water, salts, and waste products The Urinary System Urinary bladder Kidney Ureter Urethra

The Male Reproductive System The Female Reproductive System
LE 1-6 k,l Produces sex cells and hormones The Male Reproductive System Urethra Prostate gland Seminal gland Ductus deferens Epididymis Testis Penis Scrotum Produces sex cells and hormones; supports embryonicdevelopment from fertilization to birth The Female Reproductive System Mammary gland Uterine tube Ovary Uterus Vagina External genitalia

Overview of the Human Organ Systems
Integumentary system Protection from environmental hazards; temperature control Skeletal system Support, protection of soft tissues; mineral storage; blood formation Muscular system Locomotion, support, heat production Directing immediate responses to stimuli, usually by coordinating the activities of other organ systems Nervous system Directing long-term changes in the activities of other organ systems Endocrine system Internal transport of cells and dissolved materials, including nutrients, wastes, and gases Cardiovascular system

Lymphoid system Defense against infection and disease Delivery of air to sites where gas exchange can occur between the air and circulating blood Respiratory system Processing of food and absorption of organic nutrients, minerals, vitamins, and water Digestive system Elimination of excess water, salts, and waste products; control of pH Urinary system Reproductive system Production of sex cells and hormones

Clinical Connection: Noninvasive Diagnostic Techniques
Used to assess aspects of body structure and function Inspection of the body to observe any changes Palpation Gently touching body surfaces with hands Auscultation listening to body sounds (stethoscope) Percussion Tapping on the body surface with fingertips and listening to echoes Copyright 2009, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Characteristics of Living Human Organism
Basic Life Processes Distinguish living from non-living things Six important life process Metabolism Responsiveness Movement Growth Differentiation Reproduction Copyright 2009, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Life Responsiveness - irritability and adaptability
Growth & Differentiation - size increase & specialization Reproduction - new generations Movement - internal (transport of nutrients) or external Metabolism: complex chemical reactions to provide energy - catabolism: breakdown of complex molecules - anabolism: synthesis of complex molecules Metabolism requires absorption of materials to provide energy - respiration: absorption, transport, and use of O2 by cells - excretion: elimination of waste products

Copyright 2009, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Homeostasis A condition of equilibrium (balance) in the body’s internal environment Dynamic condition Narrow range is compatible with maintaining life Example Blood glucose levels : mg/dL Whole body contributes to maintain homeostasis Copyright 2009, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Homeostasis of Body Fluids
Delineation of fluid compartments intracellular fluid (ICF) = within cells extracellular fluid (ECF) = outside cells intercellular fluid = tissue fluid = interstitial fluid plasma = fluid portion of blood Composition of fluids change as substances move between compartments nutrients, oxygen, ions and wastes move in both directions across capillary walls

ECF and Body Location Blood Plasma ECF within blood vessels Lymph ECF within lymphatic vessels Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) ECF in the brain and spinal cord Synovial fluid ECF in joints Aqueous humor and vitreous body ECF in eyes Copyright 2009, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Control of Homeostasis
Homeostasis is constantly being disrupted Physical insults Intense heat or lack of oxygen Changes in the internal environment Drop in blood glucose due to lack of food Physiological stress Demands of work or school Disruptions Mild and temporary (balance is quickly restored) Intense and Prolonged (poisoning or severe infections) Copyright 2009, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Homeostasis is maintained by Feedback Systems
Receptor Monitors changes in a controlled condition (stimulus) Responds to external stimuli or internal stimuli Sends input to the control center Nerve ending of the skin in response to temperature change Control Center (Brain) Sets the range of values to be maintained Evaluates input & generates output → Nerve impulses, hormones Effector Receives output from the control center Produces a response or effect that changes the controlled condition Found in nearly every organ or tissue Body temperature drops the brain sends and impulse to the skeletal muscles to contract Shivering to generate heat Copyright 2009, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Negative and Positive Feedback systems
Negative Feedback systems Reverses a change in a controlled condition Regulation of blood pressure (force exerted by blood as it presses again the walls of the blood vessels) Positive Feedback systems Strengthen or reinforce a change in one of the body’s controlled conditions Normal child birth Copyright 2009, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Negative Feedback: Regulation of Blood Pressure
External or internal stimulus increase BP Baroreceptors (pressure sensitive receptors) Detect higher BP Send nerve impulses to brain for interpretation Response sent via nerve impulse sent to heart and blood vessels BP drops and homeostasis is restored Drop in BP negates the original stimulus Copyright 2009, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Positive Feedback Systems: Normal Childbirth
Uterine contractions cause vagina to open Stretch-sensitive receptors in cervix send impulse to brain Oxytocin is released into the blood Contractions enhanced and baby pushes farther down the uterus Cycle continues to the birth of the baby (no stretching) Copyright 2009, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Homeostatic Imbalances
Normal equilibrium of body processes are disrupted Moderate imbalance Disorder or abnormality of structure and function Disease specific for an illness with recognizable signs and symptoms Signs are objective changes such as a fever or swelling Symptoms are subjective changes such as headache Severe imbalance Death Copyright 2009, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Homeostatic Imbalances: Areas of Science
Epidemiology Occurrence of diseases Transmission in a community Pharmacology Effects and uses of drugs Treatment of disease Copyright 2009, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Clinical Connection: Autopsy
Postmortem (after death) examination of the body and internal organs Several uses: Determine the cause of death Identify diseases not detected during life Determine the extent of injuries and contribution to death Hereditary conditions Copyright 2009, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Clinical Connection: Diagnosis of Disease
Distinguishing one disorder or disease from another Signs and symptoms Medical history Collecting information about event Present illnesses and past medical problems Physical examination Orderly evaluation of the body and its function Noninvasive techniques and other vital signs (pulse) Copyright 2009, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Basic Anatomical Terminology
Common language referring to body structures and their functions Anatomists use standard anatomical position and special vocabulary in relating body parts Copyright 2009, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

The Language of Anatomy

The Anatomical Position
Body upright Standing erect facing the observer Head and eyes facing forward Feet are flat on the floor and forward Upper limbs to the sides Palms turned forward Prone position: Body is lying face down Supine position: Body is lying face up 1.3

Anatomical Landmarks Frons or forehead (frontal) Nasus or nose (nasal)
Oculus or eye (orbital or ocular) Cranium or skull (cranial) Auris or ear (otic) Cephalon or head (cephalic) Facies or face (facial) Bucca or cheek (buccal) Cervicis or neck (cervical) Oris or mouth (oral) Mentis or chin (mental) Thoracis or thorax, chest (thoracic) Axilla or armpit (axillary) Mamma or breast (mammary) Trunk Brachium or arm (brachial) Abdomen (abdominal) Antecubitis or front of elbow (antecubital) Umbilicus or navel (umbilical) LE 1-8a

Antebrachium or forearm Pelvis (antebrachial) (pelvic) Carpus
or wrist (carpal) Palma or palm (palmar) Manus or hand (manual) Inguen or groin (inguinal) Digits (phalanges) or fingers (digital or phalangeal) Pollex or thumb Patella or kneecap (patellar) Pubis (pubic) Crus or leg (crural) Femur or thigh (femoral) Tarsus or ankle tarsal) Digits (phalanges) or toes (digital or phalangeal) Pes or foot (pedal) Hallux or great toe LE 1-8a

Cephalon or Shoulder head (cephalic) (acromial) Cervicis or
LE 1-8b_1 Cephalon or head (cephalic) Shoulder (acromial) Cervicis or neck (cervical) Dorsum or back (dorsal) Olecranon or back of elbow (olecranal) Upper limb Lumbus or loin (lumbar)

Gluteus or buttock (gluteal) Popliteus or Lower back of knee limb
LE 1-8b_2 Gluteus or buttock (gluteal) Popliteus or back of knee (popliteal) Lower limb Sura or calf (sural) Calcaneus or heel of foot (calcaneal) Planta or sole of foot (plantar)

Cranial Right Left Posterior Anterior or dorsal or ventral Lateral
Proximal Left Medial Lateral Right Distal Caudal LE 1-10

Abdominopelvic Quadrants
Right lobe of liver, gallbladder, right kidney, portions of stomach, small and large intestine Left lobe of liver, stomach, pancreas, left kidney, spleen, portions of large intestine Most of small intestine, and portions of large intestine, left ureter, and reproductive organs (left ovary in female and left spermatic cord in male) Cecum, appendix, and portions of small intestine, reproductive organs (right ovary in female and right spermatic cord in male), and right ureter

Abdominopelvic Regions
Epigastric region Right hypochondriac region Left hypochondriac region Umbilical region Right lumbar region Left lumbar region Hypogastric region Right inguinal region Left inguinal region LE 1-9b

Superficial anatomical landmarks and underlying organs
Urinary bladder Small intestine Spleen Stomach Large intestine Liver Gallbladder Appendix LE 1-9c

R. Hypochondriac - right, upper 1/3; gallbladder, liver, r. kidney
Epigastric - Upper, central 1/3; liver, stomach, pancreas, duodenum L. Hypochondriac - left, upper 1/3; spleen, colon, liver, l. kidney, small intestine R. Lumbar - right, lateral 1/3; cecum, ascending colon, liver, r. kidney, small intestine Umbilical - center; umbilicus (navel) is located here; jejunum, ileum, duodenum, colon, kidneys, major abdominal vessels L. Lumbar - left, lateral 1/3; descending colon, l. kidney, small intestine R. Iliac (inguinal) - right, lower 1/3; appendix, cecum, small intestine Hypogastric (pubic) - lower, center 1/3; urinary bladder, small intestine, sigmoid colon, female reproductive organs L. Iliac (inguinal) - left, lower 1/3; small intestine, descending colon, sigmoid colon

Planes and Sections Imaginary flat surfaces that pass through the body parts Sagittal plane A vertical plane that divides the body into right and left sides Midsagittal plane divides body into equal right and left sides Parasagittal plane divides body into unequal right and left sides Copyright 2009, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Planes and Sections Frontal or coronal plane Divides the body or an organ into anterior (front) and posterior (back) portions Transverse plane Divides the body or an organ into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) portions Also called cross-sectional or horizontal plane Copyright 2009, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Planes of Section Frontal plane Sagittal plane Transverse plane
LE 1-11

Planes and Sections Oblique plane Passes through the body or an organ at an angle Between transverse and sagittal plane Between transverse and frontal plane Sections Cut of the body made along a plane Copyright 2009, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Body Cavities Spaces within the body that help protect, separate, and support internal organs Cranial cavity – dorsally located Thoracic cavity – ventrally located Abdominopelvic cavity – ventrally located Copyright 2009, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Cranial Cavity and Vertebral Canal
Formed by the cranial bones Protects the brain Vertebral canal Formed by bones of vertebral column Contains the spinal cord Meninges Layers of protective tissue that line the cranial cavity and vertebral canal Copyright 2009, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

LE 1-14 Provides protection; allows organ movement;
lining prevents friction separated by diaphragm into Surrounded by chest wall and diaphragm Contains the peritoneal cavity subdivided into Includes the Contains many digestive glands and organs Contains urinary bladder, reproductive organs, last portion of digestive tract Surrounds right lung Contains the trachea, esophagus, and major vessels Surrounds left lung also contains Surrounds heart

Thoracic Cavity Within the thoracic cavity Pericardial cavity Fluid-filled space that surround the heart Pleural cavity Two fluid-filled spaces that that surround each lung Copyright 2009, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Thoracic Cavity Mediastinum Central part of the thoracic cavity Between lungs Extending from the sternum to the vertebral column First rib to the diaphragm Diaphragm Dome shaped muscle Separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominopelvic cavity Copyright 2009, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Abdominopelvic Cavity
Extends from the diaphragm to the groin Encircled by the abdominal wall and bones and muscles of the pelvis Divided into two portions: Abdominal cavity Stomach, spleen, liver, gallbladder, small and large intestines Pelvic cavity Urinary bladder, internal organs of reproductive system, and portions of the large intestine Copyright 2009, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Serous Cavities Serous cavity – narrow fluid-filled space lined by a serous membrane (serosa) - Pleura - Pericardium - Peritoneum Parietal serosa – pleura covers the opposing mediastinal surface and inner body wall; pericardium is continuous with the viseral serosa; peritoneum lines the body wall Visceral serosa – covers the visceral organs Serous Fluid – watery lubricant secreted by both serous membranes to minimize friction between organs and cavity walls Mesenteries – organs (stomach, small intestine, parts of large intestine) are suspended by double sheets of peritoneum to provide support and stability with limited movement

Thoracic and Abdominal Cavity Membranes
Viscera Organs of the thoracic and abdominal pelvic cavities Serous membrane is a thin slippery membrane that covers the viscera Parts of the serous membrane: Parietal layer Lines the wall of the cavities Visceral layer Covers the viscera within the cavities Copyright 2009, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Pleura Serous membrane of the pleural cavities Visceral pleura clings to surface of lungs Parietal pleura lines the chest wall Pericardium Serous membrane of the pericardial cavity Visceral pericardium covers the heart Parietal pericardium lines the chest wall Peritoneum Serous membrane of the abdominal cavity Visceral peritoneum covers the abdominal organs Parietal peritoneum lines the abdominal wall Copyright 2009, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Serous Cavities LE 1-13 Visceral pericardium Pleural cavity Heart
Pericardial cavity Thoracic cavity Pleural cavity Pericardial cavity Parietal pericardium Pericardial cavity Air space Diaphragm Diaphragm Balloon Abdominal cavity Peritoneal cavity Abdominal cavity Abdominopelvic cavity Pelvic cavity Pelvic cavity Sternum Heart in pericardial cavity Pleural cavity Right lung Left lung Left lung Right lung Pleura Mediastinum Spinal cord LE 1-13

Other Cavities Oral (mouth) cavity Tongue and teeth Nasal cavity nose Orbital cavities eyeball Middle ear cavities Small bones of the middle ear Synovial cavities Joints Copyright 2009, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Medical Imaging Techniques and procedures used to create images of the human body Allow visualization of structures inside the body Diagnosis of anatomical and physiological disorders Conventional radiography (X-rays) have been in use since the late 1940’s Copyright 2009, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Radiography (insert figures for each image in following slides)
X-rays produce image of interior structures Inexpensive and quick Hollow structures appear black or gray Do not pass easily through dense structure (bone) At low dose, useful for soft tissue (breast) Mammography (breast) Bone densitometry (bone density) Copyright 2009, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
High energy magnetic field Protons in body fluid align with field Color image on a video monitor 2D and 3D blueprint Relatively safe procedure Not used on patients containing metal Used for differentiating normal and abnormal tissues Tumors, brain abnormalities, blood flow Copyright 2009, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Computed Tomography Computer-Assisted radiography (CT-Scan) 3-D structures Visualize soft tissue in more detail than conventional radiography Tissue intensities show varying degrees of gray Whole-body CT scan Lung and kidney cancers, coronary artery disease Copyright 2009, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Radionuclide Scanning
Radioactive substance (radionuclide) given intravenously Gamma rays detected by camera Radionuclide image displays on video monitor Color intensity represents uptake Single-photo-emission computerized tomography (SPECT) Specialized technique used for brain, heart, lungs, and liver Copyright 2009, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
Positron (positively charged particles) emitting substance injected into the body Collision between positrons and negatively charged electron in body tissues Gamma rays produced Computer constructed a PET scan image in color Used to study physiology of body structures (metabolism) Copyright 2009, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Endoscopy Endoscope Lighted instrument with lens Image projected onto a monitor Colonoscopy Interior of colon Laparoscopy Organs in abdominopelvic cavity Arthroscopy Interior of joint (knee) Copyright 2009, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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