1. Gender Stratification

2. Gender and Inequality
Gender–Personal traits and social positions that members of a society attach to being female and male
Gender stratification–Unequal distribution of wealth, power, and privilege between men and women
Male-female biological differences

3. Gender in a Global Perspective
Israeli kibbutzim
Gender equality is a stated goal.
Margaret Mead’s research
Culture is key to gender differences.
George Murdock’s research
Some global agreement about feminine and masculine tasks.
Gender and culture
What it means to be male or female is mostly a creation of society.

4. Figure 13.1 Men’s and Women’s Athletic Performance

5. A form of social organization in which males dominate females
Patriarchy and Sexism
A form of social organization in which males dominate females
Matriarchy–A form of social organization in which females dominate males
Sexism–Belief that one sex or the other is innately inferior or superior
Institutional sexism
Found throughout the economy
The costs of sexism
Sexism limits half of the human population.
Inevitability of patriarchy
Most sociologists believe gender is socially constructed and can be changed.

6. Global Map 13.1 Women’s Power in Global Perspective

7. Gender and Socialization
Gender roles (sex roles)–Attitudes and activities that a society links to each sex
Gender affects how we think of ourselves and teaches us how to behave.
Research suggests that most young people develop personalities that are a mix of feminine and masculine traits.

8. Gender and the Family Is it a boy or girl?
Color-coding gender
Traditional notions of gender identity
Handling of children
Female: passivity and emotion
Male: independence and action

9. Gender and Peer Groups Janet Lever (1978) Gilligan (1982) Schooling
Boys favor team sports with complex rules and clear objectives.
Girls’ sports teach interpersonal skills and the value of sharing and cooperation.
Gilligan (1982)
Boys reason according to abstract principles. Girls consider morality a matter of responsibility to others.
Schooling
Gender shapes interests and beliefs, guides areas of study, and career choices.

10. Gender and the Mass Media
White males have center stage.
Minorities locked out until the early 1970s.
Women receive roles based on sex appeal.
The “beauty myth”

11. Social Stratification
59% of all women work.
Women hold primary responsibility for household duties.
Our culture gives more responsibility for parenting to women.
On average, women earn 77 cents for every dollar earned by men.
Some work defined as “men’s work”

12. Table 13.1 Jobs with the Highest Concentrations of Women, 2006

13. Figure 13.2 Housework: Who Does How Much?

14. Education, Politics, and Military
Gender and education
60% of all associate and bachelor degrees are earned by women. Since 1992, women earned most postgraduate degrees.
Politics
Nineteenth Amendment (1920)
Women active in local, state politics
Military
15% of US military personnel are women and 15% of all deployed forces.
Culture influences our views of women in the military.

15. National Map 13.1 Women in State Government across the United States

16. Are Women a Minority?
At every class level, women have less income, wealth, education, and power than men.
Intersection theory–The interplay of race, class, and gender, often resulting in multiple dimensions of disadvantage.
Disadvantages linked to gender and race often combine to produce especially low social standing.
Multilayered system of disadvantage for some and privilege for others

17. Violence Against Women
In the 19th century, men claimed the right to physically discipline their wives.
Sexual assaults, rapes, attempted rapes, and physical assaults
Campus and university gender violence
Much gender-linked violence occurs in the home.
Female genital mutilation

18. Global Map 13.2 Female Genital Mutilation in Global Perspective

19. Violence Against Men
Our society might encourage more violence against men than women.
Our culture tends to define masculinity in terms of aggression and violence.
Men’s lives involve more stress and isolation than women’s lives.

20. Sexual Harassment Rules for workplace interaction
Comments, gestures, or physical contact of a sexual nature that are deliberate, repeated, and unwelcome.
Rules for workplace interaction
Causes of sexual harassment
Culture encourages men to be sexually assertive and perceive women in sexual terms.
Men occupy most positions of power.
By the “effect standard,” a hostile environment involves different perceptions of the same behavior.

21. Pornography
People take different views of what is and isn’t pornographic.
Concerns about pornography as a moral issue
The gender-stratification point of view considers pornography a power issue.
Concern that pornography promotes violence against women by portraying them as weak and undeserving of respect

22. Applying Theory Gender

23. Theoretical Analysis of Gender
Structural-functional analysis
Parsons: Gender forms a complementary set of roles that links men and women into family units and gives each sex responsibility for important tasks.
Modern societies relax traditional gender roles as they become more meritocratic because rigid roles waste human talent.
Social-conflict analysis
Gender involves differences in behavior and power.
Engels: Capitalism strengthens male domination.

24. Figure 13.3 Use of Contraception by Married Women of Childbearing Age

25. Feminism Working to increase equality Expansion of human choice
The advocacy of social equality for women and men, in opposition to patriarchy and sexism
Working to increase equality
Expansion of human choice
Eliminate gender stratification
Ending sexual violence
Promotes sexual freedom

26. Types of Feminism Liberal feminism Socialist feminism Radical feminism
Free to develop own talents and interests
Socialist feminism
Pursues collective personal liberation
Radical feminism
Eliminate idea of gender
Egalitarian, gender-free revolution
Opposition to feminism
Threat to male status and self-respect
Growing evidence that men and women think and act in different ways

27. Applying Theory Feminism

28. Figure Opposition to Feminism among First-Year College Students, The share of college students expressing antifeminist views declined after Men are still more likely than women to hold such attitudes. Source: Astin et al. (2002) and Pryor et al. (2005)

29. Race and Ethnicity

30. Definitions
Race–A socially constructed category composed of people who share biologically transmitted traits that members of a society consider important
Sociologists consider racial terms misleading at best and harmful at worst.
No society contains biologically “pure” people.

31. Definitions Ethnicity–a shared cultural heritage
The United States is a multiethnic society
Like race, ethnicity is socially constructed
Remember: Race is constructed from biological traits and ethnicity is constructed from cultural traits.
For most people, ethnicity is more complex than race.

32. Table 14.1a Racial and Ethnic Categories in the United States, 2000 (Continued on next two slides)

33. Table 14.1b (cont.)

34. Table 14.1c (cont.)

35. Minority General characteristics Stereotypes, stigma, and labeling
Any category of people distinguished by physical or cultural difference that a society sets apart and subordinates
General characteristics
Distinct identity: Race, sex, sexual orientation, the poor
Subordination: Often saddled with lower status
Stereotypes, stigma, and labeling
Group size not always a factor
Women in US outnumber men.
Blacks in South Africa outnumber whites.

36. National Map 14.1 Where the Minority Majority Already Exists

37. Prejudice
Prejudice–A rigid and unfair generalization about an entire category of people.
Stereotype–An exaggerated description applied to every person in some category

38. Measuring Prejudice The Social Distance Scale
Student opinion shows a trend toward greater social acceptance.
People see fewer differences among various minorities.
The terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, might have reduced social acceptance of Arabs and Muslims.

39. Figure 14.1 Bogardus Social Distance Research (Detail on next slide)

40. Figure Detail

41. Racism
The belief that one racial category is innately superior or inferior to another
Racism has been widespread throughout US history where ideas about racial inferiority supported slavery.
Overt racism in the US has decreased, but remains a serious social problem.

42. Theories of Prejudice Scapegoat theory
Disadvantaged people who unfairly blame minorities for their own problems
Authoritarian personality theory
Rigid moralists who see things in “black & white”
Culture theory
Everyone has some prejudice because it’s embedded in culture.

43. Theories of Prejudice Conflict theory
Self-justification for the rich and powerful in the United States
Minorities might cultivate climate of race consciousness in order to win greater power and privileges.

44. Seeing Sociology in Everyday Life The Distribution of Intelligence.

45. Discrimination Experiment
A Class Divided

46. Unequal treatment of various categories of people
Discrimination
Unequal treatment of various categories of people
Institutional prejudice and discrimination–Bias built into the operation of society’s institutions
Carmichael and Hamilton: People are slow to condemn or even recognize institutional prejudice and discrimination because it often involves respected public officials and long-established practices.

47. The Vicious Circle
Prejudice and discrimination begin as ethnocentric attitudes.
As a result, groups can be placed in a situation where they’re socially disadvantaged and labeled.
A group’s situation, over time, is thus explained as a result of innate inferiority rather than looking at the social structure. The cycle then repeats itself.

48. Figure Prejudice and Discrimination: The Vicious Circle Prejudice and discrimination can form a vicious circle, perpetuating themselves.

49. Patterns of Interaction
Pluralism–A state in which people of all races and ethnicities are distinct but have equal social standing
Assimilation–The process by which minorities gradually adopt patterns of the dominant culture
Miscegenation–Biological reproduction by partners of different racial categories

50. Patterns of Interaction
Segregation–The physical and social separation of categories of people
Genocide–The systematic killing of one category of people by another

51. National Map Land Controlled by Native Americans, 1790 to Today In 1790, Native Americans controlled three-fourths of the land (blue-shaded areas) that eventually became the United States. Today, Native Americans control 314 reservations, scattered across the United States, that account for just 2 percent of the country’s land area. How would you characterize these locations? Source: Copyright (c) 1998 by The New York Times Co. Reprinted by permission. All rights reserved.

52. National Map The Concentration of Hispanics or Latinos, African Americans, Asian Americans, and Arab Americans, by County, 2000

53. Race and Ethnicity: Looking Ahead
The US will remain a land of immigrants.
Most immigrants arrived in a wave that peaked about 1910.
Another wave of immigration began after World War II and swelled as the government relaxed immigration laws in the 1960s.

54. Aging and the Elderly
If today’s longevity were the same as it was in 1900, half of the US population would not be here at all; half would have already died, and half would never have been born.”

55. Graying of United States
Seniors are now 12.4% of the population.
By 2030, Baby Boomers will number 71 million.
The elderly population of wealthy nations is increasing most rapidly. By
About half the population will be over 40.

56. Figure 15. 1 The Graying of U. S. Society The proportion of the U. S
Figure The Graying of U.S. Society The proportion of the U.S. population over the age of 65 tripled during the last century. The median age of the U.S. population has now passed 35 years and will continue to rise. Source: U.S. Census Bureau (2005)

57. Aging Population Increase
Birth rate: going down
Decreased infant mortality
Children are a major expense.
Advances in birth control
Life expectancy: going up
Improved housing, nutrition and increased wealth
Medical advances
Almost eliminated childhood infectious diseases
Treat cancer and heart disease

58. Sociological Impact Cultural change “Young-old” and “old-old”
Elderly more visible
“Young-old” and “old-old”
Younger elderly 65-75: Independent with good health and financial security
Older elderly past age 75: Dependent on others
Over age 85 fastest growing segment: Women outnumber men

59. Biological Changes Gerontology Physical changes Health
Study of aging and the elderly
Attitude toward aging depends on societal values
Physical changes
Predictable graying of hair, wrinkles, loss of height and weight, decline in strength, vitality, and senses
Odds of chronic illnesses and life-threatening conditions rise
Health
Most over 65 report good health
“Well-to-do” people have it better since they can afford preventive care .

60. National Map 15.1 The Elderly Population across the United States

61. “The older I grow, the more distrust the familiar doctrine that age brings wisdom”
H.L. Mencken

62. Frontline Special
Living Old

63. Psychological Changes
Advancing age does not mean certain impairment of mental abilities.
Some research reports improved math and verbal skills.
Personality changes
The elderly can become more introspective.
Major shifts in personalities don’t normally take place.

64. Aging and Culture
The significance of growing old varies according to culture.
Age stratification
Unequal distribution of wealth, power and privilege among people at different stages of the life course
Hunting and gathering societies
Pastoral, horticultural, and agrarian societies
Industrial and postindustrial societies

65. Global Map 15.1 Life Expectancy in Global Perspective

66. Transitions and Challenges of Aging
Finding meaning
Social isolation
Retirement
Aging and poverty
Caregiving
Ageism
The elderly: a minority?

67. Finding Meaning Erikson: Resolve a tension of integrity vs. despair
Successful aging lies in maintaining dignity and self-confidence and accepting advancing age.
Neugarten studied the personality types of people in their 70s.
Disintegrated and disorganized
Passive-dependent
Defended
Integrated

68. Table 15.1 Living Arrangements for the Elderly

69. Social Isolation Isolation is common among the elderly.
Retirement, limited mobility, and negative stereotypes close off sources of social interaction.
Death of significant others
Many widows and widowers cite loneliness as serious problem.
Older people value independence.
Family members are a major source of social support.
Daughters more than sons
By age 75 53% of women but only 22% of men live alone. At no age do most men live alone.
Social isolation results from retirement and the death of significant others. It is an especially serious problem for women, who usually outlive their spouses.

70. Retirement New activities and interests Volunteer work can fill time.
Work is an important part of personal identity.
To minimize loss of prestige:
New activities and interests
Volunteer work can fill time.
Part-time work can bring additional money.
Retirement is a recent idea in industrialized societies occurring within the last century.
When or whether we retire
“Staged retirement”–People continue working well past age 65, reducing their hours as they build financial security.

71. Poverty
Home mortgage is usually paid off, some costs rise for the elderly
Medical care, household help, and utilities
Social security is the major source of income.
In 2005, 10.1% of elderly Americans fell below the poverty line at age 65.
Median individual income for women is $12,495 and for men $21,784.

72. Figure 15.2 U.S. Poverty Rates by Age, 2005

73. Caregiving
Informal and unpaid care provided to a dependent person by family members, other relatives, or friends
Although parents provide caregiving to children, the term is more often applied to the needs of elderly men and women.
80% of caregivers are family members, daughters make up 75%
Elder abuse

74. Elder Abuse From passive neglect to active torment
In many forms: verbal, emotional, financial, and physical
More than 1 million a year severely abused
Abuse is most likely to occur if the caregiver:
Works full time
Cares for young children
Is poor
Feels little affection for the older person
Finds the elderly person very difficult
Gets no support or help

75. Prejudice and discrimination against older people
Ageism
Prejudice and discrimination against older people
Like racism and sexism, ageism builds physical traits into stereotypes.
Older people are more likely than younger people to be mentally and physically impaired.
Friedan: Ageism is deeply rooted in our culture.

76. The Elderly: A Minority?
Streib: Elderly aren’t a minority.
Minority status is usually both permanent and exclusive.
Being elderly is an open status because people are elderly for only part of their lives.
Everyone who has the good fortune to live long enough grows old.
Elders at highest risk of being poor or disadvantaged fall into categories of people who are at highest risk of being poor throughout the life course.

77. Theoretical Perspective
Structural-functional analysis
Disengagement theory–Society enhances its orderly operation by disengaging people from positions of responsibility as they reach old age.
Symbolic-interaction analysis
Activity theory–A high level of activity enhances personal satisfaction in old age.
Social-conflict analysis
Inequality based on age categories
Different opportunities and access to social resources create a system of age stratification.

78. “Death, after all, is the only reality that never lets you down.”
Pico Iyer

79. Death and Dying Historical patterns of death
Modern separation of life and death
Ethical issues: confronting death
Death occurs when an irreversible state takes place.
Living wills–Documents stating which medical procedures an individual wants and doesn’t want under specific conditions
Euthanasia–Assisting in the death of a person suffering from an incurable disease

80. A grim demographic fact is that after age 30, a person’s chance of death doubles every eight years.
Waldrop, 1992

81. Stages of Death and Bereavement
Kübler-Ross: Most people usually confront their own death in stages.
Denial
Anger
Negotiation
Resignation
Acceptance

82. “One can experience an unconditional affirmation of life only when one has accepted death, not as contrary to life, but as an aspect of it.”
Joseph Campbell

83. Bereavement Persistent profound grief and social disorientation
Experts agree that how a family and friends view an impending death affects the dying person.
Hospice movement
Bereavement is less intense for someone who accepts the loved one’s death, and the relationship has reached a satisfactory resolution.

84. The Future Increasing numbers
By 2050, there will be more elderly in the US than the entire population in 1900.
Need to review support services for the elderly
Availability and sufficiency
The elderly should experience a better quality of life.
Medical technology
Financial strength
Changes in how death is viewed