1. Sexual Orientation and the Social Problem of Homophobia
Social Problems
Sexual Orientation and the Social Problem of Homophobia

2. What is Homosexuality?
“an attraction, physical and emotional, to people of the same sex.” (Tepperman et al.)
“a preference for emotional-sexual relationships with individuals of the “same” sex (homosexuality), the “opposite” sex (heterosexuality), or both (bisexuality)” (Kendal et al.)
Can be behaviour or identity
Homosexual and gay: males who prefer “same” sex
Lesbian: females who prefer “same” sex
Straight: heterosexuals who prefer “opposite” sex

3. Criteria for Classifying Individuals as Gay, Lesbian, or Bisexual
Sexual attraction to persons of one’s own gender
Sexual involvement with one or more persons of one’s own gender
Self-identification as a gay man, lesbian, or bisexual

4. Gender Identity and Sexual Orientation
Gender identity refers to one’s sense of maleness or femaleness in society
Formed by age three
Important aspect of one’s self concept
Emerges as a significant aspect of identity during adolescence
Sexual identity refers to a sense of one’s attractiveness to others comfort with one’s body and sexual attitudes and feelings
Sexual orientation - level of attraction to the same, opposite, or both sexes
Homosexual orientation
Heterosexual orientation
Bisexual orientation

5. In the recent past… A sin
Homosexuality has often been regarded as:
A sin
A function of some form of physical and mental pathology

6. Recent Past (cont.)
In Aug. 6, 1885, the British Parliament voted to make homosexual acts a criminal offense.
Many other Western countries soon followed suit
In 1930s Germany, Hitler launched campaign against not just Jews but also other groups…
Thousands of homosexuals sent to concentration camps.
Gay men identified with pink triangles and lesbians with black triangles.

7. More Recently…
Dr. Alfred Kinsey’ s research (1953) instrumental in the normalization of homosexual behavior
Sexual feelings and behaviors towards the same sex were not abnormal
Researchers concluded that homosexuals cannot be distinguished from non-homosexuals in psychological terms
Thomas Szasz – Psychiatrists replaced the church in labeling homosexuality an illness

8. The Numbers:
Dr. Alfred Kinsey (1953) showed that sexuality a continuum:
Homosexuality heterosexuality
Kinsey estimated the homosexual population at 10 percent of the population
Current studies indicate it is around 1 to 4% of the population
2003 Canadian Community Health Survey found only 1% but according to gay community in Canada more likely 5 – 10%
(Alphonso, Globe and Mail, June 16, 2004,

9. Our Changing Attitudes… (CBC Digital Archives)
Go to the CBC Digital Archives at to see the changes in Canadian attitudes and understanding by watching the 1959 clip “A Psychiatric Problem” and the 1978 clip “The Rocky Road to Gay Rights”
More recently…

10. Environics Research Group 2001 Poll of Canadian Attitudes Toward Homosexuality
Date “Approval” “Disapproval” No opinion
% 48% 27%

11. 2004 Gallup Poll on Same Sex Marriage (http://www. gallup

12. The Gay Lifestyle: Interpersonal Relationships and Domestic Arrangements
Studies point to similarities and differences between homosexual and heterosexual relationships
Interestingly, domestic arrangements often mirror those of heterosexual couples
Influence of patriarchal culture?
Long-lived partnerships between gay men are not uncommon but they are not typical
Lesbians tend to attach a high priority to domestic partnerships

13. The Homosexual Subculture
Homosexual subculture consists of the institutions within the gay community
Gay magazines and periodicals
Bars, Movie theaters
Parks
Businesses
Social clubs and organizations
A major function of the subculture is that it provides a way for its members to understand and accept their orientation
Homosexual organizations aid in the pursuit of political rights

14. Who “Becomes” a Homosexual?
No direct link between genetic traits and homosexuality but growing scientific literature provides evidence for biological basis
Large portion of homosexuals attribute their orientation to early childhood or support a biological explanation
Social scientists largely attribute homosexuality to one’s social environment
Believe sexual behavior is learned

15. Labelling Theory Explanation:
Homosexuality as a process of labeling that involves four stages
1. Sensitization
2. Dissociation and significance
3. Coming out
4. Commitment

16. Lack of Scientific and Public Consensus
Debate: Does homosexuality have genetic or social origins?
Sexualities are shaped differently across time and location
Real issue is about social justice and not about the origins of homosexuality

17. Inequality Based on Sexual Orientation Exists Because of:
Homophobia: the irrational and excessive fear of intolerance of homosexuals and homosexuality
Biphobia: fear and intolerance of bisexuals and bisexual lifestyles
Transphobia: fear of transsexual and transgendered people
Heterosexism: belief that heterosexuality is the only normal, natural, and moral mode of relating, and hence is superior to homosexuality or bisexuality. In our culture, heterosexuality is the norm and many people are at least somewhat “heterosexist.”

18. The Social Problem of Homophobia
Variance from the societal norm of heterosexuality is not a social problem
The societal response, whether it is in the form of prejudice, discrimination (institutional or individual) or homophobia is the social problem.

19. Sources of Homophobia Homophobia tends to be associated with
Male gender identity
Distorted notions of masculinity
Study by Adams (U. of Georgia) showed that individuals who score in the homophobic range on a "Homophobia Scale" demonstrate significant sexual arousal to male homosexual erotic stimuli.

20. Generally, research shows that homophobic individuals….
1. are less likely to have had personal contact with lesbians or gays;
2. are less likely to report having engaged in homosexual behaviors, or to identify themselves as lesbian or gay;
3. are more likely to perceive their peers as manifesting negative attitudes, especially if the respondents are males;
4. are more likely to have resided in areas where negative attitudes are the norm (e.g., the midwestern and southern United States, the Canadian prairies, and in rural areas or small towns), especially during adolescence;
5. are likely to be older and less well educated;

21. Research shows… (cont.)
6. are more likely to be religious, to attend church frequently, and to subscribe to a conservative religious ideology;
7. are more likely to express traditional, restrictive attitudes about sex roles;
8. are less permissive sexually or manifest more guilt or negativity about sexuality, although some researchers have not observed this pattern and others have reported a substantially reduced correlation with the effects of sex-role attitudes partialled out;
9. are more likely to manifest high levels of authoritarianism and related personality characteristics. (source:

22. U.S. Studies on Effects of Homophobia show:
Students who describe themselves as lesbian, gay, bisexual or transgendered are five times more likely to miss school because of feeling unsafe and 28% are forced to drop out.
The vast majority of victims of anti-lesbian/gay violence - possibly more than 80% - never report the incident, often due to fear of being "outed."
85% of teachers oppose integrating lesbian, gay and bisexual themes in their curricula.
Due to sexual orientation discrimination, lesbians earn up to 14% less than their heterosexual female peers with similar jobs, education, age and residence, according to a 1995 study by the University of Maryland.

23. U.S. Studies (cont.)
42% of homeless youth identify as lesbian, gay or bisexual.
75% of people committing hate crimes are under age 30 - one in three are under 18 - and some of the most pervasive anti-gay violence occurs in schools.
Lesbian, gay and bisexual youth are at a four times higher risk for suicide than their straight peers.
A 1994 survey of 191 employers revealed that 18% would fire, 27% would refuse to hire and 26% would refuse to promote a person they perceived to be lesbian, gay or bisexual.
Source:

24. Canadian Studies:
Lack of research in Canada, especially on homosexual youth.
According to Egale Canada: “Teens are among those most vulnerable to homophobic bullying” but also notes that: “Currently, there are no Canadian statistics except for a small scale study (77 youth) done in 1999 in B.C. by the McCreary Centre Society.” (

25. Canadian (cont. ) (table below from http://www. lgbthealth

26. Health Effects due to Homophobia: Report to Gay and Lesbian Health Services Sakatoon SK
Other Canadian research shows that an “increased incidence of health and social problems found in the GLB population are related to the stigma and shame associated with living in a homophobic society” (Ryan, Brotman & Rowe, 2000)
Evidence of higher rates of depression
Higher unemployment
More likely to be victims of physical violence and anti-homosexual homicide
(source: The Human Impact of Homophobia, 2003 by Christopher Banks

27. The Status of Homophobic Discrimination in Canada and the U.S.:
Typically, three most common types of discrimination and oppression are:
Ideological
Legal
Occupational

28. Ideological Discrimination
Enacted through homophobia
When people believe gays are immoral:
They belittle their lifestyle
Tell jokes
Deny housing, jobs, memberships
Engage in hostile or violent acts
Most Judeo-Christian religions and Islam generally find homosexuality to be a sin although a few denominations tend to be more accepting of homosexuality (i.e. the United Church allowed ordination of gays in 1988)

29. Ideological (cont.)
Buddhism only major religion that does not regard homosexuality as a sin
Medicine and psychiatry considered homosexuality an illness in the past
i.e. in U.S., it was not until 1973 when the American Psychiatric Association stopped classifying it as such.
Stereotypical beliefs equate sexual orientation and other practices eg. Pedophilia is nearly always committed by heterosexual men

30. Legal Discrimination: Legal and Civil Status in Canada
In Canada, the government of the late P.M. Trudeau decriminalized homosexuality in 1969
In 2005, the House of Commons voted 158 to 133 to adopt controversial legislation to make Canada only the third country in the world to legalize same-sex marriage (> marriage licences by June 2006)
On Monday (May 26, 2008) the Huron Diocese of the Anglican Church in London, ON voted “in favour (~72% ministers and laypersons) of conditionally allowing ministers to bless married, same-sex couples” (

31. Canada (cont.)
Same-sex couples can be parents in Canada
In 2007, same-sex couples married outside of Canada allowed to immigrate to Canada as married couples (
Time line in Canada:

32. In the U.S….
But…in the U.S., sodomy still a crime in some states and same sex marriage is illegal (through a constitutional amendment endorsed by G. W. Bush in 2003).
Most states also have laws banning same sex marriage with exception of Massachusetts and California (will vote Nov. 2008)
For more, see

33. Around the World…
World Timeline:
Global climate, especially in Western World, is changing
Denmark first country to legally recognize same-sex marriage in 1989
Follwoed by Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, France and Iceland (2001)
Israel, South Africa, Spain, and New Zealand have now legalized same-sex marriage

34. Occupational Oppression
In 1995 the Canadian Human Rights Act was amended to prohibit discrimination on basis of sexual orientation
It is now illegal in Canada to refuse employment on basis of sexual orientation
Also, same sex benefits are now law
But still many issues exist…
For an interesting explanation of some of the problems, read the C.A.W. brochure (see below)

35. Occupational (cont.)
“Gays, lesbians, bisexuals and trans people aren't asking for special rights. We are asking for an end to discrimination. It’s only in the last five years that employers in Canada can no longer legally pay lesbian and gay employees less than their heterosexual counterparts (prior to this, unless it was specifically negotiated for same-sex couples, only heterosexual employees had benefit and pension coverage for their partners). Trans people certainly aren’t asking for anything ‘special’ either – a safe place to work, a safe washroom / changeroom (just like everyone else has), the right to be called by their name, the right to accommodation (that we all have), and the right to be referred to by their chosen gender.” (from 2006 C.A.W. booklet at

36. Other Forms of Discrimination
Housing can be a problem, so there is a tendency to inhabit specific geographic spaces in major cities
Medical care: many professionals have been prejudiced, uninformed, or provided inadequate information
Hate crimes and hate literature motivated by victim’s sexual orientation
See “In Defense of Homophobia” at:

37. Overall…
Homophobia (including biphobia, transphobia, and heterosexism) seems to be more pronounced in the U.S. than in Canada
The result of legislation (Charter of Rights, recognition of the legality of gay marriage, etc. seem to have had a positive effect on Canadian attitudes.
Recent Canadian research does show an increase in tolerance toward homosexuals
Tolerance also a function of political movements by gays and on behalf of gays

38. What are Canadian Attitudes?

39. Attitudes (cont.)

40. Sociological Perspectives
Functionalist
Focus is on the relationship between social structure and sexual orientation, e.g., how norms and laws preserve social structures like the family, and how sexual orientation is said to threaten it
Societies punish homosexual conduct because it violates norms and undermines stability
But marriage is also understood as the decision of two people to live together in a partnership

41. Perspectives (cont.) Conflict
Focus is on tensions in society and differences in interests and power among opposing groups
People with power have own attitudes enforced
Norms pertaining to compulsory hetero-sexuality reflect beliefs of dominant group
But adverse decisions by courts led to increased political activism by gay and lesbian rights groups

42. Perspectives (cont.) Conflict (cont.)
Openly gay and lesbian people are found in all occupations and publicly acknowledge their orientation
But some wealthy and powerful people are gay and lesbian and do little to reduce discrimination

43. Perspectives (cont.) Interactionist
Views sexual behaviour as learned behaviour
Examines process by which individuals come to identify as gay, lesbian, bisexual or straight
Acquiring status of heterosexual is easier because it is the established norm
Sexual orientation is a master status, the most significant status a person possesses, for many homosexuals. It is especially significant when linked to other subordinate group statuses

44. Perspectives (cont.) Interactionist (cont.)
Stages in accepting a lesbian, gay, or bisexual identity:
Identity Confusion—feeling different from others
Seeking out others who are openly lesbian or gay and experimenting
Integrating self concept and accepting a label by pursuing a way of life that conforms to the label

45. Perspectives (cont.) Feminist
Focus, originally, was on group (men) in power imposing its agenda
Norms and values about heterosexuality work to promote interests of men
More recently a shift has occurred from critiques of patriarchy to a more inclusive politics that values all diversity and encourages acceptance of all people

46. Perspectives (cont.) Queer Theory
Rejects notions of “normal” or “natural” in favour of social construction so any and every form of sexuality is acceptable
The term “Queer” is reclaimed as a means of self-identification (“ form of tertiary deviance”)

47. Reducing Inequalities…
Functionalist Perspective:
With the legalization of marriage some are saying that homosexuality can be dysfunctional for society
Conflict Perspective:
Homophobia is like racism and sexism
Repeal laws based on discrimination and pass laws that ban discrimination
People must continue activism to gain equal rights
Interactionist Perspective:
Society should be more tolerant.
Legal and social barriers that prevent full participation in society should be removed

48. Reducing Inequalities Based on Sexual Orientation:
Feminist Perspective:
Promote sexual pluralism all people need to support each other to combat oppression
Everyone can then fight against the variety of oppressions
Queer Theory:
Refuse to define self or others

49. Interesting websites…
History of Legislation:
Link to Resources:
PBS Report: